AN ACTION PLAN FOR
MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE
ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
December 2024
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
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ABOUT THIS DOCUMENT
This document was developed by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) with input from the following
Departments and Agencies to enable greater coordination to enhance a clean and competitive
transportation sector:
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT)
• U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
Acknowledgement: A special thank you to the subject matter experts across multiple federal departments
and agencies, the U.S. National Labs, and the many stakeholders who contributed to the development of
this report.
Disclaimer
This document is a work of the United States Government and is in the public domain. Distribution and use
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"Reference to specific commercial products, manufacturers, companies, or trademarks does not
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This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
1.1 Intent and Purpose 1
1.2 A Call to Action 1
1.3 Sector Today 3
1.4 Strategy to Reduce Emissions in the MHDV On-Road Sector for the Future 4
1.5 Energy Infrastructure Strategy 7
1.6 Increasing Efficient Freight Transportation 8
1.7 Job Creation and Workforce Development 8
1.8 Action Plan Moving Forward 10
1.9 Following Through with Action 11
2. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT 12
2.1 Commitment and Vision 12
2.2 The Role of MHDVs in the U.S. Transportation System 13
2.3 The Blueprint for Reducing MHDVs Emissions 15
2.4 Report Objectives And Organization 16
3. MHDV EMISSIONS ACCOUNTING 18
3.1 Sector and Emissions Accounting 18
3.1.1 Estimated GHG Emissions and Market Segmentation 19
3.1.2 Minimizing GHGs While Managing Criteria Pollutants 22
3.1.3 Methods and Limitations 24
4. MHDV DECARBONIZATION STRATEGY 26
4.1 Strategy Overview 26
4.2 Clean Fuels, Emerging Technologies, and Infrastructure 27
4.2.1 Technologies and Fuels 27
4.2.2 Current Market Status and Objectives 30
4.2.3 ZE-MHDV Technology Strategy 33
4.2.4 Energy Infrastructure and Corridors 49
4.2.5 Legacy Vehicles and Sustainable Liquid Fuels 75
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
4.3 Convenience and Efficiency 76
4.3.1 Strategies to Improve MHDV Convenience 76
4.3.2 Strategies to Improve MHDV Efficiency 78
5. CROSS-CUTTING STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT TRANSPORTATION DECARBONIZATION 83
5.1 Building Good Jobs and a Stronger MHDV Economy 83
5.2 Supply Chain and Manufacturing 84
5.3 Workforce Development and Transition 85
5.4 Community Impacts 87
5.5 Safety and Standards 90
5.6 International Coordination 94
6. NEXT STEPS - GETTING TO 2030 95
6.1 Core Strategic Plans and Milestones 95
6.2 Federal Actions Now Through 2030 97
6.3 Funding and Financing For Deployment 100
6.4 Policy and Regulatory Opportunities and Gaps 102
6.5 Research, Analysis, and Data Needs 103
6.6 Indicators of Progress 107
7. CONCLUSION 110
A Holistic, Comprehensive Approach 110
An Action Plan for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Energy and Emissions Innovation 112
Call to Action 113
ACRONYM LIST 114
APPENDIX A: VEHICLE TYPES AND VOCATIONS 116
APPENDIX B: BIOFUELS' ROLE IN DECARBONIZING THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR 118
APPENDIX C: MORE DETAIL ON SELECTED DECARBONIZATION ACTIONS 125
APPENDIX D: MARKET SEGMENTATION AND EMISSIONS ACCOUNTING 126
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 129
REFERENCES 130
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
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1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.1 Intent and Purpose
The Action Plan for Medium- and Heavy-Duty
Vehicle Energy and Emissions Innovation (the
MHDV Plan) summarizes strategies and actions to
substantially reduce emissions in the U.S.
commercial on-road medium- and heavy-duty
vehicle (MHDV) sector. This includes all on-road
vehicles over 8,500 pounds used for commercial
purposes. The intended audience of this report are
industry and stakeholders who will take on the
suite of actions needed to drive forward MHDV
emissions reduction and decarbonization in a
sustainable and economic way.
The transportation sector is now the largest source
of GHG emissions in the United States and a
contributor of harmful air pollutants that are
negatively impacting the quality of life in cities,
towns, and rural communities throughout
America. In the United States, these effects
disproportionately impact low-income
communities. To address these challenges, we
aim to dramatically reduce GHG and criteria
emissions from each part of the transportation
sector and implement a holistic strategy to
achieve a future mobility system that is clean,
safe, and accessible, and provides sustainable
transportation options for all people and goods.
In 2023, the United States Department of Energy
(DOE), the United States Department of
Transportation (DOT), the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the
United States Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) released the U.S. National
Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonization
(Blueprint). The Blueprint provides the roadmap for
how we can address these issues to provide better
transportation options, expand affordable and
° Zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) is the term commonly used to
refer to vehicles with zero tailpipe emissions. All analysis and
support for the U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation
Decarbonization (Blueprint) and this plan consider the full life
cycle analysis (LCA) emissions, including, for example, the
accessible options to improve efficiency, and
transition to zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) and
fuels." This plan is built on five principles emphasized
in the Blueprint that galvanize thought leadership to
address transportation emissions:
1) Initiate bold action
2) Embrace creative solutions across the entire
transportation system
3) Ensure safety, community benefits,
and access
4) Increase collaboration
5) Establish U.S. global leadership.
The MHDV Plan is one of several action plans that
cover each part of the transportation sector and
build on the foundation presented in the Blueprint.
Separately, individual sector action plans are also
being developed to address rail, maritime, light-duty
vehicles, and off-road vehicles. The Aviation Climate
Action Plan was previously released, and action
plans have also been developed to address the
Blueprint's convenience and efficiency strategies.
1.2 A Call to Action
MHDVs contribute 21% of U.S. transportation GHG
emissions, the second-highest transportation
mode, despite making up a small proportion of
vehicles on the road.1 The vast majority of MHDVs
today are fueled by diesel, which, in addition to
emitting GHGs, contributes to poor air quality and
associated negative health impacts, especially for
communities located near truck routes and freight
hubs. Communities near heavy truck traffic, and
thereby pollution, are disproportionately
burdened.2 As such, decarbonizing the MHDV
sector while minimizing criteria air pollutant (CAP)
emissions is a community concern. The strategies
production of the energy to make electricity, hydrogen, or
diesel. Other economic trends and technologies outside of the
scope of this plan are leading to a substantial reduction in the
emissions of other sectors, such as the electric sector.
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
outlined in this plan address both GHG and criteria
emissions that impact air quality.
Momentum is growing for MHDV decarbonization
spurred by lower-cost innovations in technology.
As of 2023, there have been nearly 35,000 zero-
emission MHDV (ZE-MHDV) trucks and buses
deployed, with more planned through future fleet
and manufacturer commitments.3'4'5 While growth
has been rapid, today's deployments represent
less than 1% of total MHDVs on the road today,
necessitating continued innovation and
substantial scale-up of vehicle deployments,
clean fuels, and infrastructure.
This plan will support implementation of the Global
Memorandum of Understanding on Zero-Emission
Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles (the "Global
MOU") and, by 2030, support 30% of new commercial
MHDV sales as net zero tailpipe emission and work
towards 100% sales by 2040 through public-private
investments, research and demonstration, and
vehicle and infrastructure incentives. The actions in
this plan will advance commercialization for zero-
emission solutions by 2030:
• Achieve competitive ZE-MHDV total cost
of ownership
• Develop and demonstrate advanced
ZEV technologies for long-haul and
specialized vehicles
• Invest in manufacturing scale-up and
workforce development for commercial
ZE-MHDVs
• Invest in the deployment of ZE-MHDV
charging and refueling infrastructure.
This plan lays out the path to achieve cost parity
by 2030 between new zero-emission long-haul
heavy-duty trucks and existing internal
combustion engine (ICE) long-haul trucks, the
largest source of GHG emissions in the sector. This
will require extensive development of both
battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and hydrogen fuel
cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) coupled with
investments in energy infrastructure at depots
and regional hubs. Through DOE's SuperTruck
Initiative and the 21st Century Truck Partnership.
government and industry will collaborate to
achieve these targets.
To achieve this transition to ZEVs, deploying
charging/refueling infrastructure will be critical.
This plan calls for the implementation of the
National Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy
(the "Corridor Strategy"), which lays out an all-
of-government approach to aligning investments
and accelerating sustainable and scalable
deployment of reliable ZE-MHDV infrastructure.
Achieving this build-out will require close
cooperation and coordination with industry, fleets,
utilities, government, and community groups. This
collaboration will inform ongoing improvements
and implementation of infrastructure deployment
through collaborative planning and public-private
investments to realize 36% completion of the
National Highway Freight Network by 2030 and
close to 100% by 2040.
In 2024, the United States announced a national
goal for a zero-emission freight sector and
announced the availability of $1.5 billion to
transition MHDVs to ZE-MHDVs. Also in 2024, EPA
established multi-pollutant (GHG and air
pollutant) emissions standards for light- and
medium-duty vehicles (including Class 2b and 3
MHDVs) and, separately, GHG standards for
heavy-duty (Class 4 and above.b) on-road
vehicles for model years 2027 through 2032. In
addition, the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration recently announced the Heavy-
Duty Pickup Trucks and Vans Fuel Efficiency
Standards, covering Class 2B/3 trucks and vans for
MYs 2030 to 2035. The MHDV Plan, developed with
industry input, lays out the actions needed to help
support realization of these important federal
actions.
b This plan defines "Heavy-Duty" as Classes 7 and 8.
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
State-level rulemaking has set additional targets.
California's Advanced Clean Fleets regulation
requires a full transition to ZEVs between 2035 and
2042 for covered fleets, while California's
Advanced Clean Trucks regulation specifies an
increasing share of ZEV sales for MHDV trucks
between MYs 2024 and 2035. The Advanced Clean
Trucks rule has been proposed or adopted by 10
states as of July 2024. To achieve state and
federal goals and bridge the gap between
present-day deployments and future targets, bold
and decisive actions are needed to address
barriers, reduce market uncertainty, and signal a
firm federal commitment to ZEV adoption.
1.3 Sector Today
The market for MHDVs is diverse. MHDVs play a
central role in the U.S. freight system, providing
local, regional, and long-haul freight
transportation services. They are also used to
move people short and long distances in school
buses, shuttles, transit buses, and intercity buses.
Finally, MHDVs are used in a wide range of
commercial and municipal vocational
applications that may involve specialized auxiliary
equipment, such as utility trucks, refuse trucks, and
street sweepers. This final category of vehicles is
referred to as "specialized vehicles and work
trucks" in this document.
U.S. On-Road Commercial MHDVs (Class 2B-8)
Vehicles
14.6 Million
100%
75%
CD
1—
I 50%
25%
0%
VMT
328 Billion
Energy
Consumed
5,412 Trillion Btu
GHG
Emissions
4094 MMT C02e
zm>
sees
S3&
m
¦O02S
"D08
i i
Market Segment
¦
Class 7-8 Long-Haul
Freight
¦
Class 7-8 Local and
Regional Freight
¦
Class 4-6 Local and
Regional Freight
¦
Class 2B/3 Local and
Regional Freight
¦
Class 2B/3 Commercial
Pickup
¦
Class 2B-8 Specialized
¦
School Bus
¦
Transit Bus
¦
Intercity Bus
Figure ES-1. MHDV market segmentation by vehicle class—vehicles, vehicle-miles traveled (VMT), energy consumption, and
GHG emissions. A small fraction of heavy-duty vehicles accounts for the majority of GHG emissions. Sources: National
Renewable Energy Laboratory analysis using the Transportation Energy and Mobility Pathway Options (TEMPO) model based
on data from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (GHG!).B the Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey.7 the
National Transit Database.8 the 2023 School Bus Fleet Fact Book.9 and the American Bus Association.'0
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
Figure ES-1 shows an overview of MHDV market
segments in the United States and their relative
contributions to vehicle population, activity
(vehicle-miles traveled [VMT]), energy
consumption, and GHG emissions. MHDV market
segments were defined based on vehicle body
type, type of operations (i.e., passenger, freight, or
other commercial activities), and operational
patterns, based on data from the 2021 Vehicle
Inventory and Use Survey and other sources.
This action plan breaks the segment into three
subsegments with different strategies for
decarbonization and timeframes for each.
They include:
1) Local and regional return-to-base, including
local and regional freight trucks, school
buses, and transit buses. These market
segments are characterized by relatively low
mileage, daily returns to a home base, and
relatively predictable routes. Local and
regional return-to-base applications account
for 49% of vehicles and 45% of energy
consumption and GHG emissions (the
majority of GHG emissions from Class 7-8
freight vehicles). These market segments offer
early opportunities for transitions to ZEVs.
particularly for BEVs in lighter vehicle classes
driving shorter distances.
2) Specialized vehicles and work trucks,
including commercial pickups and
specialized vehicles serving vocations such
as refuse transportation, snow removal, street
sweeping, towing and hauling, equipment
transportation, providing power to work sites,
and powering auxiliary equipment. These
market segments account for a high fraction
of total vehicles and a relatively lower share
of activity, energy, and GHG emissions. While
a small number of ZEVs have been deployed
to date (primarily refuse trucks), operational
data collection and prototype development
could be used to develop additional ZEV
options for these segments.
3) Long-haul, including Class 7-8 long-haul
freight trucks and intercity buses. These
market segments are characterized by high
mileage, few returns to central locations, and
longer and more variable routes. Only 7% of
vehicles are used for long-haul,c operations,
but their heavy weight and intensive
utilization lead to disproportionate impacts:
39% of energy consumption and GHG
emissions. Intercity buses are a smaller share
of vehicles, VMT, and GHG emissions.
Decarbonizing long-haul freight will offer the
greatest returns in terms of reducing overall
MHDV emissions, but further demonstrations
of technology viability and supporting
infrastructure are needed.
1.4 Strategy to Reduce Emissions in the
MHDV On-Road Sector for the Future
TECHNOLOGY STRATEGY
The MHDV Plan focuses on two primary technology
pathways to reduce emissions from MHDVs, as well
as additional transitional pathways. The primary
pathways are BEVs and fuel cell electric vehicles
(FCEVs). BEVs are ZEVs powered solely by electricity
stored in an on-board battery. FCEVs are ZEVs that
are powered by hydrogen and use fuel cells to
convert hydrogen into electricity to power the
vehicle. Both technologies have zero GHG or air
pollutant emissions at the tailpipe. Coupled with an
increasingly carbon-free upstream fuel supply, ZEVs
offer a pathway to reduce emissions and greatly
reduce local air pollution, addressing climate and
public health goals.
Transitional pathways, such as sustainable liquid
fuels—including biodiesel and renewable diesel—will
play a role in reducing carbon emissions as the
transition to ZEVs occurs. Other transitional
technologies—including hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and
c Long-haul freight (which includes Class 7-8 combination
trucks used for long-distance freight operations) is the single
greatest contributor to emissions.
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
5
hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2ICE)—
may also play a role in near-term transitions as ZEV
technologies continue to develop.
Converting to sustainable solutions presents
different tradeoffs and opportunities for BEVs and
FCEVs across MHDV market segments and will
require different vehicle and infrastructure
solutions and investments. Figure ES-2 shows
technology innovation pathways to transition to
ZE-MHDVs across all MHDV market segments. BEVs
will be the predominant technology option in low-
mileage, local return-to-base applications, which
are well suited to today's BEV capabilities.
Regional return-to-base applications may require
a mix of BEVs and FCEVs, with high-mileage
applications and routes with shorter periods of
inactivity favoring FCEVs. Applications such as
drayage trucks—freight trucks operating out of
ports—are priorities for these market segments.
The MHDV Plan and the Corridor Strategy prioritize
near-term deployment of ZEVs and
charging/refueling infrastructure in critical freight
hubs. Specialized vehicles and work trucks may
use BEVs or FCEVs; as few models currently exist,
near-term priorities include data collection to fully
understand consumer needs and expectations,
developing prototype vehicles, and demonstrating
feasibility of ZEV powertrains.
Reducing emissions in the long-haul market
segment will have the greatest impact on MHDV
emissions. However, for this segment, ZEV
technology and infrastructure solutions are still
evolving, with substantial cost reductions
anticipated. In the near term, further
demonstrations and infrastructure deployment
along corridors are needed to build confidence
(including the ability to meet durability, range,
recharging/refueling speed, and weight
requirements) and spur investments. Given the
uncertainties at this stage of market development,
the MHDV Plan assumes that both BEVs and FCEVs
may be deployed to support this segment, as both
technologies offer benefits along with limitations.
Sustainable liquid fuels may also support reducing
emissions during the transition to ZEVs and might
play a role in perpetuity for particularly
challenging routes.
i i • - S iv ¦ 8 BBS BMBI
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
Strategies to enable clean vehicle and fuel conversion for all MHDV applications
LOCAL & REGIONAL
RETURN-TO-BASE
~
~
SPECIALIZED
VEHICLES &
WORK TRUCKS
LONG-HAUL
ALL SEGMENTS
Local: Low-range requirement and return-to-base routes with long dwell time
align with today's BEV capabilities supported by affordable depot charging.
~
~
Regional: FCEVs could complement BEVs for
high-mileage routes with shorter periods of
inactivity. Both depot charging and regional
charging/refueling infrastructure are needed.
Demonstrate feasibility of BEVs and FCEVs
to meet power demands and duty cycle
requirements and understand charging and
refueling needs.
Support initial BEV and FCEV deployments
while reducing vehicle cost. Success for BEVs
and FCEVs will depend on development of
fueling/charging corridors and increased
availability of lower-cost, low-GHG H2.
Sustainable liquid
fuel for remote
operations, extreme
environments, and
legacy vehicles
Research and development for next-generation batteries, ZEVs, and
charging technologies.
Research and development for clean hydrogen and fuels production.
Investments in the electric grid, including programs to support vehicle-
grid integration.
Manufacturing and supply chain investments to enable ZEV and
infrastructure production.
Workforce development and training.
Figure ES-2. Strategies to enable clean vehicle and fuel conversion for all MHDV applications.
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
Key near-term strategies to enable ZEV
technology transitions across all market segments
include the following:
• Support up-front cost reductions of ZEVs and
total-cost-of-ownership competitiveness with
internal combustion engine vehicles (iCEVs)
by leveraging existing incentive programs to
support early ZEV adopters, implementing
existing programs to scale manufacturing and
supply chains, and supporting research on
low-cost vehicle components and
manufacturing processes. Funding programs
and tax credits established by the 2021
Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) and the 2022
Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) provide historic
levels of funding to pursue these aims.
• Support innovative research, development,
demonstration, and deployment of ZEVs and
component technologies to enable lowered
costs, improved performance, and expanded
ZEV model offerings in market segments such as
specialized vehicles and work trucks and long-
haul passenger and freight. DOE's SuperTruck 3
Initiative is one key example of a public-private
partnership to achieve these aims.
• Expand data collection efforts on ZEV
operations to enable prototype development
and energy demand forecasting, particularly
for market segments where data is sparse,
such as specialized vehicles and work trucks.
Partnerships between private actors and
national laboratories can enable expanded
analysis and data collection.
• Key enablers include continued safety
and standards development and education
and workforce development to ensure
the development of robust manufacturing
and maintenance workforces for ZEVs
and infrastructure.
• Learning from deployment of freight vehicles,
electric school buses, transit buses, and
charging/refueling infrastructure in
coordination with fleets and other
stakeholders can be helpful to streamline
future medium- and heavy-duty (MHD)
vehicle and infrastructure deployments.
• Charging/refueling infrastructure
deployment is also a key strategy and is
discussed below.
1.5 Energy Infrastructure Strategy
Ensuring the timely deployment of ZEV
charging/refueling infrastructure will be critical to
enabling ZEV adoption. Different ZEVs will have
different charging/refueling infrastructure needs,
necessitating different priorities across market
segments. Challenges include streamlining BEV
charging infrastructure deployment timelines and
coordination processes between fleets, utilities,
regulatory agencies, and other stakeholders;
developing low-cost clean hydrogen production
and distribution networks; and developing a
national charging/refueling network along key
freight corridors. The following are key strategies
to enable energy infrastructure deployment:
• Streamline charging infrastructure
deployment through coordinated local, state,
regional, and federal actions. Federal actions
include providing guidance to streamline the
energy infrastructure permitting process,
promoting fleet-utility coordination and
communication, and developing forecasting
tools to help utilities better plan for future site
energization demands. State and local
actions can involve modernizing and
streamlining the regulatory framework for grid
planning and charging infrastructure
deployment.
• Support cost-competitive charging/refueling
prices. Cost-competitive electricity charging
and hydrogen refueling prices are essential to
enabling ZE-MHDV economic
competitiveness. Actions include the
following:
o Research and demonstrate MHDV
vehicle-grid integration (VGl)
approaches, such as managed charging,
that reduce costs and shorten energization
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8
timelines while ensuring that MHDV fleet
operators can meet or exceed operational
needs with zero-emission solutions. These
approaches will be most applicable to
vehicles in the local and regional return-
to-base and specialized vehicles and work
trucks market segments.
o Invest in clean hydrogen production,
distribution, and end-use networks
through DOE's Regional Clean Hydrogen
Hubs Program.
• Invest in phased deployment of
charging/refueling infrastructure, including
strategic and coordinated phased
deployment of high-speed
charging/refueling infrastructure along key
freight corridors. The Corridor Strategy lays
out criteria for prioritizing charging/refueling
infrastructure deployment, beginning in
regional freight hubs and expanding along
key freight corridors. Funding is available for
station rollout through the National Electric
Vehicle Infrastructure Formula Program, the
Charging and Fueling Infrastructure
Discretionary Grant Program, and the
Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs Program.
Continued development of standards for
high-speed charging/refueling, including the
Megawatt Charging System and high-speed
hydrogen dispensing, will also be needed.
1.6 Increasing Efficient
Freight Transportation
Convenient and Efficient strategies will enable
MHDV decarbonization by reducing the distance
traveled between destinations and the energy
intensity of each mile traveled while still meeting
the needs of consumers. Actions to improve
convenience will involve advanced freight
movement-planning solutions, such as curbside
demand management and off-peak deliveries.
The federal government is currently developing
technical assistance for state and local
transportation agencies aimed at improving
freight system convenience.
Actions to improve efficiency will involve vehicle-
level innovations, including improved
aerodynamics and component light-weighting;
operational efficiency, including efforts to reduce
vehicle idling and congestion; and system-wide
efficiency measures, including investments in
transit buses and investments to expand
affordable access to efficient freight modes.
Current programs include DOT'S Mega. INFRA.
Marine Highway. Port Infrastructure Development.
and Consolidated Rail Infrastructure and Safety
Improvements programs. DOT will designate a
National Multimodal Freight Network that supports
the use of lower carbon modes.
1.7 Job Creation and
Workforce Development
A thoughtful, strategic approach to supporting the
U.S. workforce and communities will be essential to
ensure a strategic transition for all Americans.
Transitioning to a clean MHDV sector provides
opportunities across a range of industries-
including freight and passenger transportation,
motor vehicle and parts manufacturing, vehicle
and parts dealerships, and automotive and
maintenance repair—which collectively employ
more than 8 million people today.1112'13'14'15
Transitions will involve increased production and
jobs in ZEVs, component technologies, fuels, and
infrastructure.16 Continued federal leadership is
needed to ensure workforce development benefits
all communities through actions such as policies
and incentives to support high-quality job
creation and retention and ongoing investments
in domestic industries and supply chains and
programs to facilitate worker training (including
reskilling and upskilling).
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9
Core strategy areas and supporting actions to promote MHDV Decarbonization
NEAR-TERM MIDTERM LONG-TERM
(BEFORE 2030) (2030-2040) (2040 & BEYOND)
ZEV Technology Deployment
• Vehicle purchase incentives established by IRA & BIL
• Vehicle component R&D (cost, performance, and durability)
• Demonstrate prototypes for emerging market segments
(long-haul, specialized, and pickups)
• Manufacturing scale-up incentives established by IRA and BIL
1 ZEV Energy Infrastructure
• Support depot and regional charging/fueling infrastructure
deployment
• Phased build-out of national corridor infrastructure network
(2024-2040)
Sustainable Fuel Production and Distribution
• Develop technologies and feedstocks to enable drop-in
sustainable liquid fuel production
• Develop clean hydrogen production hubs and
distribution networks
• Support scale-up of cost-effective, high-volume clean
sustainable liquid fuel and hydrogen production pathway
1 Efficient Strategies
• Support improvements in operational efficiency
• R&D for improved vehicle efficiency
• Investments to support affordable access to efficient modes
1
1 Convenient Strategies
• Implement advanced freight movement planning solutions
• Support strategies to increase passenger bus ridership
Additional Supporting Actions
• EPA emission standards and NHTSA fuel economy standards
• Education & technical support for fleets, utilities, municipalities,
and other stakeholders
• Safety and standards development
• Workforce development and training
Figure ES-3. Core strategy areas and supporting actions to promote MHDV decarbonization.
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1.8 Action Plan Moving Forward
Coordination across multiple federal agencies, as
well as with state and local governments and
private actors, will be needed to support MHDV
decarbonization. Figure ES-3 outlines the
sequencing of actions across core strategy areas:
clean vehicles, fuels and infrastructure (including
reducing ZEV costs, deploying ZEV infrastructure,
and promoting sustainable fuel development),
improving system-wide efficiency and
convenience, and crosscutting measures. Three
phases of action are envisioned, encompassing
near-term (before 2030), medium-term (2030-
2040), and long-term (2040 and beyond) actions.
Near-term actions (completed before 2030) will
involve leveraging IRA and BIL incentives to
support the deployment of ZEVs in early markets-
including school buses, transit buses, and local
and regional freight operations. This includes $5
billion in funding for EPA's Clean School Bus
Program. $3 billion in funding for the Clean Ports
Program. $1 billion in funding for the Clean Heavy-
Duty Vehicles Grant Program. $2.5 billion for DOT'S
CFI Discretionary Grant Program, and numerous
additional tax credits and incentives for ZEV
purchases, clean fuel production, and
manufacturing. Manufacturing and fuel
production scale-up incentivized by IRA tax
credits for critical vehicle components such as
batteries and fuel cells, clean hydrogen
production, and biofuel production will also begin
in this period, with the goal of realizing medium-
term cost reductions through economies of scale.
Energy infrastructure development—including
deploying charging/refueling infrastructure at
depots and local and regional networks—will also
begin, with a particular focus on critical freight
hubs. These three strategies will address both
demand and supply barriers with the aim of
stimulating medium-term market expansion of
ZEVs. The following are near-term milestones for
infrastructure and fuel production scale-up:
• By 2026: Finalize initial design for clean
hydrogen production hubs and distribution
networks through DOE's Regional Clean
Hydrogen Hubs program
• By 2026: Host a ZE-MHDV infrastructure
stakeholder workshop to promote
collaboration across stakeholders
• By 2027: Complete Phase 1 of the Corridor
Strategy, deploying charging at regional
freight hubs
• By 2028: Meet clean hydrogen levelized cost
target at the fueling station of $7/kg.
Simultaneously, a near-term research, data
collection, and outreach agenda will lay the
groundwork for future ZEV deployments in
additional markets. This includes substantial
stakeholder outreach and partnerships to collect
data on vehicle duty cycles, develop education and
training for fleets and workers, and evaluate ZEV
safety and standards. In addition, core DOE research
efforts will continue to focus on improved vehicle,
fuel production, and infrastructure components,
with the aim of reducing costs and improving
performance and durability, as well as prototype
development for expansion into additional market
segments. Core milestones include:
• By 2026: Complete initial data collection on
vehicle duty cycles, including nationally
representative data on daily mileage, dwell
times, and auxiliary power demands across
all MHDV applications
• By 2027: Demonstrate long-haul ZEV operations
and infrastructure on real-world freight corridor
in partnership with industry and nonprofits; also
demonstrate prototypes for specialized vehicles
and commercial pickups.
Medium-term actions and milestones (2030 to
2040) will build on near-term programmatic
efforts with the aim of expanding ZEV adoption
from early-market to full-scale production,
reducing production costs and improving
performance of vehicle components and fuels,
expanding ZEV adoption to new market segments,
and further establishing regional and corridor
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11
infrastructure networks. Investments will also build
on prior research efforts, including in managed
charging and VGI, multimodal investments, and
strategies to improve convenience. Core medium-
term milestones include the following:
• By 2030: Achieve cost parity for long-haul
ZEVs with ICEVs, building on technology
development, demonstrations, and
manufacturing and fuel scale-up initiated in
the near-term phase
• By 2030: Achieve 30% ZEV sales by 2030,
aligned with the Global MOU
• By 2030: Connect key zero-emission freight
hubs (Phase 2 of the Corridor Strategy)
• By 2031: Meet clean hydrogen levelized cost
target at the fueling station of $4/kg
• By 2035: Expand corridor connections
between critical freight hubs (Phase 3 of
the Corridor Strategy).
Long-term actions and milestones (2040 and
beyond) will be responsive to market
developments in the near term and medium term.
While many specific actions are in flux, key themes
include expanding ZEV adoption to all market
segments, achieving full build-out of corridor
energy infrastructure, realizing cost reductions in
ZEVs and fuels to reach levelized cost parity with
ICEVs, and supporting sustainable liquid-fuel
adoption for legacy vehicles. In addition,
investments in transportation system efficiency
and convenience will be realized on a long-term
timescale. These actions will hinge on the success
of previous efforts and related milestones—for
example, build-outs of corridor energy
infrastructure will hinge on proactive development
of zero-emission fuels and efforts to modernize
and streamline regulatory frameworks, as well as
expanded ZEV adoption into long-haul market
segments.
Key long-term milestones include the following:
• By 2040: Enable 100% ZE-MHDV sales across all
market segments
• By 2040: Complete the national zero-emission
freight corridor infrastructure network (Phase
4 of the Corridor Strategy)
• By 2050: Fully decarbonize the legacy fleet
using sustainable liquid fuels and reach net-
zero GHG emissions.
1.9 Following Through with Action
This MHDV Plan is envisioned as a living document,
with progress on MHDV emissions reduction
evaluated at regular intervals and future updates
to this document made as needed. The path to
significant MHDV emissions reduction will require
innovative solutions across state and federal
governments, industry, utilities, and other
stakeholders. Ongoing and regular engagement,
outreach, and partnership with industry, state and
local government, utilities, and communities will
be needed to support the transition and should be
a priority for the implementation of all programs
and strategies. Information sharing, exchange of
lessons learned and best practices, support of
technical assistance, and project development
through partnership formation will be critical to
the success of strategies outlined in this action
plan. With continued investments and technology
progress, partnerships and collaborations, bold
actions, and creative solutions, the future is bright
for clean MHDV solutions.
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2. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT
2.1 Commitment and Vision
To substantially reduce emissions, the United States
has established a goal of achieving economy-wide
net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050.17
Reducing emissions in the transportation sector is
critical to achieving this goal; at 33% of economy-
wide emissions, it is the single greatest contributor to
GHG emissions across all sectors.18 To meet this
challenge, four United States (U.S.) federal
agencies—the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE),the
U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD)—released the U.S. National Blueprint for
Transportation Decarbonization ("the Blueprint") in
2023, a whole-of-government strategy to
significantly reduce emissions from all modes of
transportation. The Blueprint calls for bold actions
across all modes of transportation between now
and 2030 to set the sector on a path toward
achieving net-zero emissions by 2050.
Medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs)
account for 5% of on-road vehicles and 21% of
sector-wide GHG emissions.19 20 Recent
technological advancements in zero-emission
vehicles (ZEVs)—vehicles with zero tailpipe
emissions, which include battery-electric vehicles
(BEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles
(FCEVs)—have led to new optimism and the
development of decarbonization targets at state,
national, and international levels. In 2022, the United
States signed the Global Memorandum of
Understanding on Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles (the Global MOU), a shared
commitment by the United States and 32 other
countries to identify pathways and implementation
actions that enable zero-emission MHDVs (ZE-
MHDVs) to reach 30% of new sales by 2030 and
potentially 100% of new sales by 2040. In 2024, the
United States announced a national goal for a zero-
emission freight sector and announced the
availability of $1.5 billion to transition MHDVs to ZE-
MHDVs. In support of these aims, multiple U.S. federal
and state policies have been developed to
accelerate the deployment of ZE-MHDVs, which have
zero tailpipe emissions and include technologies
such as BEVs and hydrogen FCEVs, as well as other
pathways to decarbonization, such as sustainable
liquid fuels and measures to improve efficiency and
convenience across the transportation sector.
Notable federal policies are as follows:
• The 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL)
and the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act (IRA)
each committed billions of dollars to
decarbonization efforts across the
transportation sector.
• Recently announced rulemaking by EPA
establishes criteria air pollutant (CAP) and
GHG emissions standards for light- and
medium-duty vehicles and GHG emission
standards for heavy-duty vehicles. These
complement 2022 rulemaking aimed at
reducing pollutants that create ozone and
particulate matter fPM) from heavy-duty
engines for model years (MYs) 2027 and later.
Together, these three rulemakings form EPA's
Clean Trucks Plan.
In addition to national ambitions, substantial state-
level actions have occurred. California's Advanced
Clean Trucks regulation specifies an increasing
share of ZEV sales for MHDV trucks beginning in MY
2024. This rule has been proposed or adopted by 10
states as of June 2024. California's Advanced Clean
Fleets regulation further requires a full transition to
ZEVs between 2035 and 2042 for covered fleets.
Finally, 17 U.S. states and the District of Columbia
have joined the Multi-State Medium- and Heavy-
Dutv Zero Emission Vehicle Memorandum of
Understanding, which commits to fostering a self-
sustaining market for ZE-MHDVs, including striving to
make 30% of MHDV sales ZE-MHDV by 2030 and 100%
of sales ZE-MHDV by 2050. Beyond governments,
major fleets—including Amazon. DHL. FedEx, and
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13
others—have also committed to significantly
expanding their ZE-MHDV fleets. Simultaneously,
major auto manufacturers and trade organizations
have made commitments to decarbonization of
their products sold through zero and net-zero
solutions (see Table CI for a list of manufacturer
commitments).
With these ambitions and increasing commitments
to ZEVs by fleets and industry, momentum is growing
for MHDV decarbonization. This Action Plan for
Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Energy and
Emissions Innovation (the MHDV Plan) builds upon
the foundations established by the 2023 Blueprint by
laying out near-term, medium-term, and long-term
actions for the federal government to chart a path to
MHDV decarbonization by 2050.
Historical U.S. MHDV Energy Consumption Share by Fuel, 1990 to 2022
~ Diesel ~ Gasoline ~ Natural Gas ~ Propane
7000
2.2 The Role of MHDVs in the U.S.
Transportation System
MHDVs include all on-road vehicles with a gross
vehicle weight rating (GVWR) greater than 8,500
pounds.d This MHDV Plan specifically considers
commercial MHDVs—including all on-road vehicles
with a GVWR over 14,000 pounds and a subset of on-
road vehicles between 8,501 and 14,000 pounds used
for commercial purposes.® Light-duty vehicles (all
other on-road vehicles with a GVWR below 14,000
pounds) and off-road vehicles such as those used in
mining and construction are not included in this
scope but are addressed in additional mode-
specific action plans.
d GVWR and its relationship to vehicle class is further described
in Appendix A, Table Al.
e We divide Class 2B and 3 vehicles (GVWR of 8,501 to 14,000
pounds) into personal and medium-duty commercial vehicles
based on body characteristics and use. Commercial vehicles
are accounted for in this plan, while personal vehicles will be
accounted for in a Market and Technology Assessment for
Light-Duty Vehicle Energy and Emissions Innovation.
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Figure 1. Historical U.S. MHDV energy consumption share by fuel, 2000 to 2022. Data from the 2024 Inventory of U.S.
Greenhouse Gases and Sinks.2'
MHDV energy consumption and GHG emissions have
grown substantially, increasing by 19% and 20%
respectively between 2000 and 2022.22 Today the
majority of MHDVs are powered by diesel (92%) or
gasoline (7%) vehicles, with a small amount (around
1%) fueled by natural gas or propane. In addition to
their contribution to GHG emissions, they are also a
substantial source of local air pollution, accounting for
roughly 29% of U.S. nitrogen oxide emissions from
mobile sources and 17% of PM2.5 emissions from
mobile sources, in addition to other pollutants.23
MHDVs play a central role in U.S. freight transportation,
moving 65% of all U.S. freight by weight and 63% by
value.24 MHDV ton-miles of freight grew by 8%
between 2000 and 2022, driven by economic growth
and trends such as the rise of e-commerce (Figure
2).25 This growth is greater than that of other
competing modes; during the same period, rail ton-
miles grew by 5%, while maritime ton-miles declined
by 26%. In 2022, MHDVs accounted for 41% of all ton-
miles of freight moved, compared to 29% for rail, 10%
for marine, and 20% for pipelines. Growth is expected
to continue in the future, with the Freight Analysis
Framework projecting a 68% increase in ton-miles
moved by MHDVs between 2022 and 2050.26
a> 3,000,000
U.S. Ton-Miles of Freight by Mode
c 2,500,000
O
4-»
® 2,000,000
> 1,500,000
4-»
_c
•jjf 1,000,000
o
D
c
c
<
500,000
^ V <£>0 ^ ^ ^ ^ & & rf *
c0>
Air
Truck
Freight Mode
¦Railroad -Total Water Transportation Pipeline
Figure 2. U.S. ton-miles of freight by mode. Source: Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS).27
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Beyond transporting freight, MHDVs are used for
many diverse applications, including transporting
passengers over long and short distances (transit,
school, and intercity buses), providing power to work
sites, providing non-freight hauling services (such as
pickups, tow trucks, and refuse trucks), and by
powering auxiliary equipment such as cranes,
cement mixers, lifts, and other specialized
equipment types. Because of this diversity of uses,
MHDVs are characterized by a range of body types,
many of which are specialized for their application.
Appendix A defines the primary vehicle body types
considered in this report. This MHDV Plan divides the
market for MHDVs into three primary market
segments—local and regional return-to-base,
specialized vehicles and work trucks, and long-
distance passenger and freight vehicles—and
several more subsegments, considering aspects
such as vehicle weight class, distances driven, and
the vehicles' purposes. All of these factors influence
the GHG emissions rates of present-day vehicles
and the strategies needed to decarbonize future
market segments. This market segmentation is
discussed further in Chapter 3.
2.3 The Blueprint for Reducing
MHDVs Emissions
The 2023 Blueprint establishes a whole-of-
government approach to decarbonizing the
transportation sector, organized around three core
strategies. "Convenient" strategies aim to reduce
distances traveled between destinations by
supporting community design and land-use
planning at the local and regional levels. "Efficient"
strategies aim to reduce the energy intensity of
each mile by expanding affordable, accessible,
efficient, and reliable options like public
transportation and rail, as well as improving the
efficiency of all vehicles. Finally, "Clean" strategies
aim to reduce the carbon intensity (Cl) of fuels by
deploying zero-emission vehicles and fuels for
cars, commercial trucks, transit, boats, airplanes,
and more. Figure 3 summarizes these strategies
and their areas of intersection.
Core Strategies for Decarbonizing the U.S. Transportation Sector
Convenient
Improve Community
Design and
Land-Use Planning
Clean
Transition to Zero
Emission Vehicles
and Fuels
Active
Transportation
and
Micromobility
O yO
Clean
Electricity
Land-Use
Planning
Sustainable
Biofuels
E-fuels
Parking
Demand
Management
Efficient
Public
Transportation
Intercity
Passenger Rail
Increase Options
to Travel More
Efficiently
|g]||
fn n)
o o
Goods
Movement
Management
Fiscally
Responsible
Investments
t
-dr
Figure 3. Core strategies for decarbonizing the U.S. transportation sector. Source: The U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation
Decarbonization.
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The Blueprint lays out three primary strategies that
the federal government can take to accelerate
MHDV decarbonization. These include the following:
1) Funding research and innovation to develop
viable technologies low- to near zero-emission
vehicles for all MHDV applications
2) Implementing policy and regulation to reduce
new-vehicle GHG and criteria emissions and
setting ambitious targets for transitioning to
ZEVs on a timeline consistent with achieving
economy-wide 2030 and 2050 emissions
reduction goals
3) Investing in strategic demonstration and
deployments to support the build-out of
interoperable ZEV charging and refueling
infrastructure through coordinated planning,
policy and funding opportunities.
The MHDV Plan builds on the strategies outlined in
the Blueprint and dives deeper into specific
opportunities and challenges to decarbonization
across distinct MHDV market segments. A central
component of the MHDV Plan is the adoption of
commercial ZE-MHDVs (also referred to as ZEVs).
Coupled with a carbon-free upstream fuel supply,
ZEVs provide a concurrent solution to reducing
both GHGs and local air pollution, addressing both
climate and environmental goals.
A fully integrated economy-wide system approach
will be necessary to reach net-zero goals, including
transportation-specific strategies such as travel
mode shift, land-use planning, and improved
system-wide efficiency. Additional action plans
(Convenient Transportation: An Action Plan for
Energy and Emissions Innovation [the "Convenience
Plan"] and Efficient Transportation: An Action Plan for
Energy and Emissions Innovation [the "Efficiency
Plan"]) detail strategies for these system-wide and
multimodal emissions reductions. The MHDV Plan
also incorporates these strategies at a technical
level as they relate to freight and passenger MHDV
and associated infrastructure. Full MHDV
decarbonization will also depend on the
decarbonization of upstream vehicle and fuel
production processes, including decarbonization of
electricity generation and the industrial sector. The
United States has set ambitious targets for
electricity and industrial sector decarbonization,
with the goal of achieving 100% carbon-free
electricity by 2035 and to reach net-zero industrial
sector emissions by 2050.28'29 These targets will
assist in decarbonizing full life cycle transportation
sector emissions in the United States.
The MHDV Plan incorporates feedback from a
range of stakeholders representing vehicle
manufacturers, fleets, ports, infrastructure
providers, community organizations, and other
groups. The plan is envisioned as a living
document that can be updated as technology
and market conditions continue to evolve.
2.4 Report Objectives And Organization
The MHDV Plan has the following aims:
1. Identify key current and anticipated
future barriers to deployment for zero-
emission technologies and supporting
infrastructure and propose solutions
to address these barriers.
2. Chart a pathway to reduced emissions of the
MHDV sector through the deployment of ZEV
technologies and infrastructure, consistent with
national ambitions and international
commitments such as the Global MOU. This
pathway will include the following elements:
a. Strategies to reduce commercial ZE-MHDV
costs, including demand-side incentives,
manufacturing scaling, and research and
development
b. Strategies for deployment of
critical infrastructure to enable
ZE-MHDV adoption
c. Strategies to support the most sustainable,
cleanest fuels for year-2050 legacy
internal combustion engines (iCEs),
hybrids, and plug-in hybrids
d. A plan to monitor progress toward near-
and long-term decarbonization goals,
including monitoring technology progress
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17
arid deployment of commercial ZE-MHDVs
and infrastructure solutions and identifying
data gaps and needs.
3. Identify Convenient and Efficient strategies that
ease the transition to clean energy by
optimizing operational efficiencies, investing in
multiple freight modes (e.g., intermodal
facilities, rail, and maritime), and integrating
transportation and land-use planning to
enable shorter or fewer trips.
4. Evaluate critical enablers to advancing
commercial ZE-MHDVs, including incentives,
policy drivers, technical assistance, and
workforce development. As part of this action,
identify gaps in current federal initiatives where
additional guidance, coordination, regulation,
research, data collection, and/or funding for
demonstrations and deployments are
necessary and propose actions to address
these gaps.
The following sections of this report address each of
these objectives. Chapter 3 begins with a summary
of present-day MHDV emissions across all market
segments. Chapter 4 then discusses the status of
zero-emission technologies and fuels within
individual MHDV market segments, current
opportunities and barriers to further
decarbonization, and key strategies that can be
pursued for each market segment, including
transitions to clean technologies and fuels, actions
to deploy energy infrastructure, actions to improve
convenience, and actions to improve vehicle and
operational efficiency. Chapter 5 describes
crosscutting solutions and key enablers, including
ensuring good jobs and a stronger MHDV economy,
actions to scale supply chains and manufacturing,
actions to enable workforce development and
transition, safety and standards, and international
coordination. The report concludes with a roadmap
of recommended actions between now and 2030,
consistent with a pathway toward full modal
decarbonization by 2050, including key indicators to
track progress toward MHDV decarbonization and
an accompanying strategy for ongoing monitoring
and data collection.
Electric
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3. MHDV EMISSIONS ACCOUNTING
3.1 Sector and Emissions Accounting
This plan uses 2022 tailpipe emissions for the
baseline GHG estimates for the MHDV sector. These
emissions correspond to the classification used in
the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and
Sinks (GHGl).30 Total 2022 MHDV emissions (all on-
road vehicles with a GVWR of 8,501 pounds and
above) are estimated at 439.4 million metric tons of
carbon dioxide equivalent (MMT C02e), or 21% of U.S.
transportation GHG emissions in 2022 (Figure 4).
This estimate includes 0.1 MMT C02e of methane
(CH4), 3.3 MMT C02e of nitrogen dioxide (N2O), and
6.3 MMT C02e of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). The
Inventory's MHDV definition includes some Class
2B/3 vehicles used for personal use, whose
emissions are accounted for under a Market and
Technology Assessment for Light-Duty Vehicle
Energy and Emissions Innovation. With these
vehicles excluded, the total commercial MHDV
emissions covered in this plan are estimated at
409.4 MMT C02e, or 19% of transportation emissions.
This plan's baseline emissions data represents
direct transportation emissions from the use phase
of MHDVs, or "tailpipe" emissions, because
upstream emissions from electric power, for
example, are accounted for elsewhere in the
national GHG emissions Inventory. Decarbonizing
upstream sectors of our economy is the focus of
other government-wide initiatives that complement
this plan. Many transportation decarbonization
solutions rely on electricity directly or indirectly, such
as the production of hydrogen from water
electrolysis or certain sustainable fuels. Achieving
100% clean electricity by 2035 is a critical co-
strategy to support transportation decarbonization.
Total 2022 U.S. GHG emissions with transportation and mobile sources breakdown
Agriculture/
49% Light-Duty Vehicles
21%
Industry
33%
Transportation
I
21% Medium and Heavy Vehicles
(Trucks and Buses)
Electric Power
V
10% Off-Road Vehicles and Equipment
—2% Rail
4% Maritime*
11% Aviation*
4% Other (Pipeline/Lubricants)
*Aviation and marine include emissions from international aviation and
maritime transport. Military excluded except for domestic aviation.
Figure 4. Total 2022 U.S. GHG emissions with transportation and mobile sources breakdown. Data derived from the EPA GHGl.
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MHDV Market Segmentation
19
Local and Regional
Specialized Vehicles and Work Trucks
Commercial Pickups Specialized Vehicles
LONG-HAUL:
200+ mile radius
Long-Haul Freight
Intercity Buses
Figure 5. MHDV market segmentation. The MHDV Plan considers three primary market segments-. Local and regional return-
to-base, specialized vehicles and work trucks, and long-haul vehicles.
3.1.1 ESTIMATED GHG EMISSIONS AND MARKET
SEGMENTATION
In 2022, there were an estimated 14.6 million Class
2B-8 commercial MHDVs driving 328 billion miles
and consuming 5.4 quadrillion British thermal units
(quadrillion Btu, or quads) of energy.31'32'33'34 35 The
MHDV Plan classifies these vehicles into three
distinct market segments, which are grouped based
on vehicle class, activity, and type of commercial
use (Figure 5).
Different MHDV market segments have different
contributions to energy and emissions. Due to
differences in activity and fuel economy across
vehicle classes, vehicle populations are not directly
proportional to emissions shares. MHDV energy
consumption and emissions are highly skewed
toward heavier and longer-haul vehicles. Figure 6
shows the distribution of vehicles, activity, energy
consumption, and emissions across all MHDV
classes and market segments.
The local and regional return-to-base market
segments include local and regional freight vehicles,
school buses, and transit buses. These market
segments are characterized by relatively low mileage,
daily returns to a home base (with a maximum
operating radius of 50 miles from a home base for
local vehicles and 200 miles from a home base for
regional vehicles), and relatively predictable routes.
Examples of vehicles in these market segments
include Class 2B/3 cargo vans, Class 4-6 step vans
and box trucks, Class 7-8 day and sleeper cab
tractor-trailers (aka "combination trucks") used in
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local and regional freight operations, including
drayage' activities, and transit and school buses of all
classes. In 2022, a total of 7.2 million vehicles were
categorized in this segment (50% of commercial
MHDVs), which contributed to 44% of vehicle-miles
traveled (VMT), 45% of energy consumption, and 45%
of GHG emissions. The majority of GHG emissions
were from Class 7-8 local and regional freight
operations, which accounted for 15% of all
commercial MHDVs and 28% of GHG emissions. Class
4-6 local and regional freight vehicles were the next-
largest contributor, at 7% of commercial MHDV GHG
emissions, while school buses, transit buses, and
Class 2B-3 local and regional freight were smaller
contributors. These market segments offer early
opportunities for transitions to ZEVs. particularly for
BEVs in lighter vehicle classes driving shorter
distances. Substantial BEV deployment has already
occurred—particularly for Class 2B/3 cargo vans
(nearly than 26,000 BEVs),36 school buses (nearly
4,000 BEVs),37 and transit buses (more than 2,000
BEVs and nearly 100 FCEVs).38
The specialized vehicles and work trucks market
segment includes Class 2B/3 commercial pickups
and Class 2B-8 specialized vehicles serving
vocations such as transporting refuse, snow
removal, street sweeping, towing and hauling,
transporting equipment, providing services for
utilities ("utility service vehicles" or "bucket
trucks"), providing power to work sites, and
powering auxiliary equipment. Within this
segment, Class 2B/3 commercial pickups
composed the greatest share of vehicles in 2022
(3.8 million vehicles, or 26% of total MHDVs), while
Class 2B-8 specialized vehicles were the
remainder (2.6 million vehicles, or 18% of total
MHDVs). These market segments account for a
high fraction of total vehicles (44%) and a
relatively lower share of activity (23%), energy
(16%), and GHG emissions (16%). This is because a
majority typically drive low mileage—less than
20,000 miles per year—and tend to be lighter and
f "Drayage" trucks refer to trucks that transport shipping
containers and bulk freights from ports to intermodal facilities,
warehouses, and other near-port locations. Drayage trucks are
highly relevant to air quality due to their high average age and
have lower energy consumption rates (a majority
are Class 2B/3). However, it is important to note
that these vehicles' towing and auxiliary load
demands (i.e., from specialized equipment) are
not reported in estimates of energy consumption,
which consider only the mileage driven by the
vehicle and could be a substantial source of
additional demand. This is a key uncertainty of this
market segment and will be important in
developing future decarbonization options.
Additional operational data collection and
prototype development are needed to develop a
greater number of ZEV options for these segments.
The long-haul market segment includes Class 7-8
long-haul freight trucks and intercity buses. These
market segments are characterized by high
mileage (85,000 miles per year on average for
long-haul freight trucks), few returns to central
locations (with an operating radius of 200 miles or
greater from a home location), and longer and
more variable routes. They account for 7% of
vehicles, 34% of activity, and 39% of energy and
GHG emissions. Long-haul freight trucks (which
includes Class 7-8 combination trucks used for
long-distance freight operations) are the single
greatest contributor to emissions (7% of vehicles
and 38% of MHDV GHG emissions), due to their
high activity and high energy consumption rates
(driving 6.8 miles per gallon of diesel on
average).39 The high loads that each vehicle
carries are a substantial contributor to high
energy consumption rates. Intercity buses are a
smaller share of this segment, accounting for 1% or
less of total MHDV vehicles, VMT, and GHG
emissions.40 Due to these characteristics,
decarbonizing long-haul freight will offer the
greatest emissions reductions per vehicle when
reducing overall emissions. However, further
demonstrations of technology viability and the
development of national charging/refueling
infrastructure networks are needed to ensure
adoption in this market segment.
operations near port communities. See Appendix A for more
detail on vehicle body types.
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The U.S. federal fleet encompasses more than
650,000 vehicles, of which roughly 150,000 are
MHDVs (about 1% of total 2022 MHDV stock).41
Executive Order (EO) 14057. issued in December
2021, requires 100% of federal fleet acquisitions to
be zero-emission by 2035 (100% by 2027 for light-
duty vehicles [LDVs]). We estimate that in 2022,
the federal MHDV fleet consumed approximately
13 trillion Btu (less than 1% of 2022 MHDV energy
consumption) and emitted roughly 1 MMT of GHGs
(less than 1% of all MHDV GHG emissions).9
U.S. On-Road Commercial M/HDVs (Class 2B-8)
Vehicles
14.6 Million
100%
m
BBSS
75%
TOS
2
SEES
o
£ 50%
CO
25%
VMT
328 Billion
Energy
Consumed
5,412 Trillion Btu
GHG
Emissions
409.4 MMT C02e
0%
SEES
28%
28%
m
¦QGEb
flees
i i
Market Segment
¦
Class 7-8 Long-Haul
Freight
¦
Class 7-8 Local and
Regional Freight
¦
Class 4-6 Local and
Regional Freight
¦
Class 2B/3 Local and
Regional Freight
¦
Class 2B/3 Commercial
Pickup
¦
Class 2B-8 Specialized
¦
School Bus
¦
Transit Bus
¦
Intercity Bus
Figure 6. U.S. MHDV market segmentation by vehicle class—vehicles, VMT, energy consumption, and GHG emissions. A small
fraction of heavy-duty vehicles accounts for the majority of GHG emissions. Sources: National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) analysis using the TEMPO model based on data from the GHGI.42 the Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS).43 the
National Transit Database.44 the 2023 School Bus Fleet Fact Book.4S and the American Bus Association.46
9 Federal fleet energy consumption and emissions were
estimated from vehicle stock and activity data from reported
federal fleet data, using fuel economy data from the
Autonomie model and emission factors from the GREET model.
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3.1.2 MINIMIZING GHGS WHILE MANAGING CRITERIA
POLLUTANTS
Air pollution causes harm to human health and
the environment. When decarbonizing MHDVs, it
will be important to consider the impacts of new
and existing technologies, fuels, and practices on
both GHG emissions and air quality, including both
at the tailpipe and upstream in the fuel or
technology production process.
The National Emissions Inventory (NEl) developed
by EPA reports air pollutant emissions from both
stationary and mobile sources at three-year
intervals, including six CAPs, criteria precursors,
and other hazardous air pollutants. CAPs and their
precursors have both direct air quality impacts
and precursors to other pollutants such as PM and
ozone47 and have been proven to adversely
impact public health.48'49 50'5152 MHDVs also
contribute to other air pollutant emissions,
including air toxics, which are compounds such as
benzene and formaldehyde that are known or
suspected to cause cancer or other serious health
and environmental effects.53 While most emissions
from transportation are due to the combustion
and evaporation of fuels, brake and tire wear are
also significant sources of particulate emissions.54
The 2022 update of the 2020 NEl (the most recently
released edition) shows that MHDVs are a major
source of CAP and precursor emissions (Figure 7).
These include:
• 29% of mobile and 13% of total U.S. nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions
• 4% of mobile and 1.4% of total U.S. CO
emissions
• 17% of mobile and 0.4% of total PM2.5 emissions
• 19% of mobile and 0.3% of total PM10 emissions
• 13% of mobile and 0.5% of total U.S. ammonia
(NH3) emissions
• Smaller contributions to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and volatile organic compound (VOC)
emissions.
MHDV and Other Mobile Source Contributions to Three Criteria Air Pollutants
2% Other
N°x CO PM25
Figure 7. MHDV and other mobile source contributions to three CAPs. Source: 2020 National Emissions Inventory (2022vl
Emissions Modeling Platform).55
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Share of MHDV Criteria Air Pollutant Emissions by EPA Source Category
Volatile Organic
NOx PM25 PM1q CO S02 NH3 Compounds
1.1 million tons 29,000 tons 56,000 tons 0.9 million tons 1,700 tons 22,000 tons 0.08 million tons
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
a 50%
to
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
26%
22%
22%
23%
9%
35%
17%
22%
26%
5%
24%
24%
34%
21%
I Combination Long-Haul Truck
l Single-Unit Short-Haul Truck
l School Bus
i Combination Short-Haul Truck
l Refuse Truck
I Intercity Bus
I Single-Unit Long-Haul Truck
I Transit Bus
Figure 8. Share of MHDV CAP and precursor emissions by EPA source category. Source: National Emissions Inventory (2022vl
Emissions Modeling Platform).58
Figure 8 plots 2022 MHDV CAP and precursor
emissions by source category. The greatest
sources of MHDV emissions are Class 7-8
combination trucks (combination long-haul trucks
and combination short-haul trucks). These are
Class 7-8 vehicles primarily used for moving
freight and are classified in this MHDV Plan as part
of the local and regional return-to-base and long-
haul market segments. Single-unit short-haul
trucks, which are classified in the local and
regional return-to-base market segment, are also
significant contributors to emissions.
MHDV decolonization efforts should consider local
and regional impacts for public health. One of the
benefits of transitioning to ZEVs is the lack of tailpipe
pollutant emissions—including both GHGs and air
pollutants—which has the potential to substantially
improve public health. Beyond tailpipe emissions,
emissions from upstream and downstream
processes for the full life cycle of the vehicle and
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infrastructure—including fuel production and
distribution, vehicle manufacturing, infrastructure
manufacturing and deployment, tire and road wear,
and recycling and disposal—must also be
considered, particularly with respect to impacts for
communities with environmental concerns who
may be disproportionately located near roadways
and thereby exposed to pollution from on-road
vehicles. The impacts of deploying ZEVs on air
quality and public health will vary by geography,
particularly for upstream fuel production processes.
Screening tools and life cycle assessments must be
used to fully assess the impacts of ZEVs, diesel-
powered vehicles, and transitional technology
deployments for local communities.
3.1.3 METHODS AND LIMITATIONS
To be consistent with the methodology used in the
GHGI, we do not include life cycle emissions for our
baseline estimates for commercial MHDV sector
GHG emissions. However, the total emissions
reduction potential of different technology
pathways depends on their upstream emissions. For
the purposes of this plan, we assume that by 2050,
Accounting for Life Cycle Emissions
The data reported in this action plan is direct emissions from the use phase of vehicles and transportation
systems (i.e., tailpipe emissions). However, the strategies and recommendations in this action plan consider
full life cycle GHG emissions, including the production and end of life phases of vehicles and fuels/energy
sources. These life cycle emissions cover GHG emissions from fuel production and processing; vehicle
manufacturing and disposal; and construction, maintenance, and disposal of transportation infrastructure.
Inclusion of these life cycle emissions is important as the U.S. transportation sector evolves toward new
power train systems with new fuels/energy sources. DOE has a long history of using life cycle analyses to
assess energy technologies and inform how we can advance these systems and reduce their environmental
footprint. For the transportation sector, the Greenhouse gases. Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in
Technologies (GREET®) model is a suite of publicly available, best in class models used by the federal
government and other stakeholders to assess the energy and environmental impacts of vehicles, fuels,
chemicals, and materials across their life cycles. While the GREET model originated with a focus on
transportation technologies, GREET currently covers the full life cycle, including manufacturing, industrial,
and power sector impacts.
Reducing and ultimately eliminating life cycle emissions from these sectors is critical to achieving a fully
sustainable transportation future and economy wide decarbonization. While these modal plans are targeted to
a given mode, related strategies and plans are subject to other government wide initiatives that complement
the Blueprint and these action plans. For example, a key long term strategy of the United States is to
decarbonize the electric power sector. Although outside the scope of this action plan, this co strategy would
greatly reduce the emissions associated with energy production that is used to power electric vehicles (EVs)
and transportation systems. In summary, these action plans focus on the transportation use phase but
acknowledge that a whole of government approach across multiple sectors and agencies is truly necessary to
work to eliminate nearly all GHG emissions along every phase of the life cycle of the transportation system.
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carbon-free electricity and clean hydrogen will be
abundant, based on federal and private industry
commitments and investments, such as the
Hydrogen Shot and the commitment to a carbon-
free electricity sector by 2035. In the interim,
understanding the upstream emissions implications
for different fuel types, operating profiles, and
locations is important for prioritizing deployment of
different equipment types. For example, replacing a
highly utilized heavy-duty diesel long-haul MHDV in
a location with access to clean electricity with an
electric MHDV will lead to greater GHG emission
reductions than replacing an infrequently used
Class 2B cargo van in a location where the grid is
still heavily reliant on coal.
For 2022 emissions, life cycle emissions track very
closely with tailpipe emissions, as nearly all MHDVs
rely on combusting conventional fuels. However,
the total emissions reduction potential of different
technology pathways depends in part on the
upstream emissions. Currently, use-phase
emissions make up the bulk of GHG emissions for
conventional MHDVs. Recent life cycle analysis of
multiple MHDV applications shows that BEVs are
consistently lower emission than internal
combustion engine vehicles (iCEVs), even with the
present-day U.S. electric grid.57 This analysis
includes GHG emissions over the full vehicle cycle,
including battery production for BEVs. FCEVs are
also lower emission than ICEVs but have greater
life cycle emissions than BEVs if hydrogen is
produced from pathways such as steam methane
reforming, which uses natural gas. Additional
research is needed to comprehensively quantify
full life cycle emissions for all MHDV market
segments and technologies, including impacts on
CAPs. Building out a data pipeline to estimate life
cycle emissions for MHDVs is a near-term priority
to analyze the near-term impacts of ZE-MHDV
deployment across the full vehicle life cycle.
Available data on MHDVs comes from several
sources. The 2021 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
(VIUS) surveyed all commercial fleet activity in
2021 and includes data on vehicle populations,
VMT, and fuel economy for freight and vocational
vehicles. Limitations of this data include a lack of
information on tons of freight moved by vehicle
class, a lack of location granularity (vehicles are
reported for the state they are registered in, but
not necessarily where they are driven), and a lack
of information on total fuel consumption inclusive
of auxiliary loads. However, this source represents
an important update to previous publicly available
information on MHDVs. Continuing to update VIUS
at regular (three-to-five-year) intervals should be
a priority for monitoring MHDV decarbonization.
Transit bus data comes from the National Transit
Database (NTD), which provides annually updated
and comprehensive data on transit bus
operations at regional transit agencies. A
limitation of this source is its reporting
requirements: smaller transit agencies (fewer than
30 vehicles in peak operations) may have reduced
reporting requirements and may be excluded
from some metrics.58 School bus and intercity bus
data are compiled by industry associations (the
School Bus Fleet Fact Book for school buses and
the American Bus Association for intercity buses).
Estimates of vehicle population, activity, and
energy consumption represent aggregates from
association members and may exclude other
non-member operations. Additional data
collection is needed to improve data quality for
these modes.
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4. MHDV DECARBONIZATION STRATEGY
4.1 Strategy Overview
A wide-ranging strategy is needed to decarbonize
MHDVs, including clean technologies, sustainable
fuels, and infrastructure; improvements in vehicle-
level and system-wide efficiency; and
improvements in convenience. The MHDV Plan is
organized around the core strategy areas outlined
in Table 1.
Deploying clean vehicles, fuels, and infrastructure is
a central goal of the MHDV Plan. ZE-MHDVs will be
needed to decarbonize new vehicles in line
with the ambitions set out by the Global MOU.
In addition, sustainable liquid fuels (including
biodiesel and renewable diesel [RD]) will be needed
to decarbonize legacy vehicles. Substantial scale-up
of production and deployment of these solutions—
and their supporting infrastructure—will be needed
to reach near- and long-term goals.
Strategy Area
Core Objectives
Clean Technologies,
Fuels, and Infrastructure
1) Implement the Global MOU on commercial ZE-MHDV sales, including
supporting 30% of new commercial MHDV sales as zero-emission by 2030 and
100% by 2040
a. Achieve ZE-MHDV operational suitability in all commercial market
segments through investments in research, development, demonstration,
and deployment (RDD&D)
b. Achieve competitive ZE-MHDV total cost of ownership (TOO) by
implementing enablers to support the business case and reduction in
costs for commercial ZEVs
c. Deploy infrastructure to support commercial ZEVs, including a national
charging and refueling infrastructure network, such as implementing the
National Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy
2) Support sustainable liquid-fuel deployment in legacy vehicles and remote and
hard-to-decarbonize operations
Convenience
1) Support advanced freight movement planning solutions
2) Support the movement of people on public transit buses
Efficiency
1) Encourage the adoption of existing vehicle and fleet efficiency-improving
measures
2) Support research and development to improve vehicle component and
operational efficiency
3) Encourage system-wide efficiency improvements
Table 1. MHDV Plan Strategy Areas and Core Objectives
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Convenient and Efficient strategies will work in
tandem with the deployment of clean
technologies, fuels, and infrastructure to reduce
the miles traveled by commercial MHDVs and the
energy intensity of each mile. These strategies will
encompass both vehicle-level and system-wide
solutions, requiring research and development,
investments, and implementation by actors at
federal, state, and local levels. These strategies will
also play a key role in enabling the clean strategy
area by reducing the required scale-up of
vehicles, fuels, and infrastructure needed to reach
clean targets.
This chapter describes the objectives and key
actions needed to enact each of the MHDV Plan's
core strategy areas. Section 4.2 begins by
describing technologies and fuels that can enable
decarbonization, current ZE-MHDV market status,
and actions needed to achieve clean strategy
objectives, including ZE-MHDV deployment, energy
infrastructure deployment, and investments in
sustainable liquid fuels. This section also describes
current federal regulatory actions that can enable
this transition, including recently enacted
emissions and fuel economy standards. Section
4.3 describes strategies and actions to achieve
MHDV convenience and efficiency objectives.
Finally, critical enablers—such as education and
workforce development initiatives; investments in
domestic vehicle component, fuel production, and
infrastructure manufacturing and supply chains;
and continued development of safety and
standards for vehicles infrastructure and fuels-
are discussed in Chapter 5.
4.2 Clean Fuels, Emerging
Technologies, and Infrastructure
4.2.1 TECHNOLOGIES AND FUELS
Continued development of zero-emission and
net-zero vehicle technologies and fuels is central
to reaching MHDV decarbonization goals. In the
long term, the primary technologies to
decarbonize MHDVs will be ZEVs—including BEVs
and FCEVs—which can address both
decarbonization goals and substantially reduce
CAP emissions, a core priority for public health
aims. Transitional low-emissions technologies and
sustainable liquid fuels may also play a role,
particularly in market segments where ZEVs are
slower to emerge. Near- and long-term
technologies to decarbonize MHDVs are
described below.
BEVs are ZEVs powered solely by electricity stored
in an on-board battery. Key BEV components
include the traction battery, which stores and
delivers power to the vehicle and accounts for the
majority of vehicle cost and weight; the electric
traction motor, which propels the vehicle using
power from the battery; and the power electronics,
which control the power delivered by the battery
to the electric motor.59 BEVs can be highly energy
efficient, with efficiencies two to four times greater
than diesel counterparts, and they have been
shown in early deployments to have lower
maintenance costs than ICEVs due to fewer
moving parts.60'61 However, in some applications,
BEVs face challenges due to misalignment
between charging power and fleet duty cycles,
range limitations (currently available vehicles
have typical ranges between 125 and 300 miles),62
and heavier weight.63'64 Further improvements in
BEV technologies—particularly batteries—are still
needed to improve vehicle range, charging speed,
specific energy (the energy stored per unit of
weight), and other performance attributes. DOE's
Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO) has prioritized
the following battery research agenda:65 66
• Reduce battery pack costs—reaching
$100/kWh by 2025 and $75/kWh by 2030 for
LDVs. Today's MHDV battery pack costs may
be higher than current LDV pack costs on a
per-kWh basis due to lower production
volumes and lack of standardization.
• Improve fast-charging performance of lithium-
ion batteries—including with respect to battery
degradation and cycle life.
• Improve low-temperature performance.
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• Improve the recycling of critical minerals-
such as lithium, cobalt, manganese, nickel,
and graphite.67
• Investigate next-generation battery
technologies—including those using silicon
and nickel-manganese-cobalt composites
and lithium metal chemistries, which have the
potential to deliver lower costs and improved
specific energy for future vehicles.
Other cost and performance targets for BEVs—
including batteries and other components—can
be found in MHDV-specific technology roadmaps
supported by DOE, such as the agenda laid out by
the 21st Century Truck Partnership. Vehicle
component research is ongoing through
partnerships such as the United States Advanced
Battery Consortium and other DOE-funded
programs.
FCEVs are ZEVs that are powered by hydrogen.
FCEVs typically generate energy using polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, which
generate electricity to power the vehicle by splitting
hydrogen into protons and electrons using a
catalyst. This reaction also generates water, which is
the only tailpipe emission of an FCEV. Key FCEV
components include the fuel cell stack, where power
is produced from this hydrogen reaction; onboard
hydrogen storage tanks, which store hydrogen on
the vehicle; the electric traction motor, which, like in
a BEV, is used to propel the vehicle; the battery pack,
which provides supplemental power to the motor
and is smaller than a BEV's battery; and the power
electronics, which manage power delivered from the
fuel cell and battery to the motor.68 FCEVs can refuel
rapidly (in under 20 minutes for Class 8 vehicles),69 70'
71 have longer ranges (typically between 300 and
500 miles),.72 and are lighter than BEVs,73 74 making
them of great interest for heavy-duty and long-
distance MHDV applications with high uptime.
However, they face key challenges surrounding the
cost, production, and distribution of hydrogen, which
will be crucial to overcome to achieve widespread
adoption.75 DOE's Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Technologies Office (HFTO) administers a wide-
ranging research agenda focused on hydrogen
production, infrastructure, and fuel cells. For FCEVs,
this includes the following research aims:
• Improve fuel cell stack costs—with targets of
$80/kW by 2030 and an ultimate target of
$60/kW for a 275-kW PEM fuel cell
• Improve fuel cell lifetime to 25,000 hours (with
an ultimate target of 30,000 hours), consistent
with a million-mile lifetime
• Improve fuel cell peak efficiency to 68% in
2030 and 72% ultimately
• Conduct research on reuse and recycling,
particularly for platinum group metal
components.
Additional details and targets can be found in HFTO's
2024 Multi-Year Program Plan, which also includes
details on clean hydrogen production cost targets-
aiming to reach $2/kg by 2026 and $l/kg by 2031 as
part of the Hydrogen Shot™ program.
Sustainable liquid fuels are another alternative
proposed for MHDV decarbonization. Sustainable
liquid fuels include fuels that are produced
through renewable, non-petroleum feedstocks
such as biomass and waste oils,76 which can have
low or net-zero carbon emissions when
considered on a well-to-wheels life cycle basis.77
and can be used in vehicles designed to operate
on conventional fuels leveraging existing fueling
infrastructure.78 RD and biodiesel are two such
fuels that are suitable for use in MHDV diesel
engines, while renewable natural gas can
substitute for conventionally produced natural gas
in compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquified
natural gas (LNG) engines. The adoption of
sustainable liquid fuels will depend on future
availability, land use, and cost.
In 2023, production of RD and biodiesel was 5.1
billion gallons per year.79 DOE's Bioenergy
Technologies Office (BETO) released the 2023
Billion-Ton Study, which identifies ways in which
the United States can sustainably produce
between 1.1 and 1.5 billion tons of biomass per year,
translating to more than 60 billion gallons of
sustainable liquid fuels per year available for use
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in transportation or other sectors.80 However, more
research is needed on sustainable liquid fuel
demands across multiple transportation modes
and economic sectors, including on feedstocks,
conversion technologies, emissions intensity, and
costs of meeting these demands. The Clean Fuels
& Products Shot™ and other projects under BETO's
R&D portfolio aim to develop strategies to
sustainably and cost-effectively increase the
supply of net-zero carbon fuels to meet these
needs.8182
Other hybrid and low-emission transitional
technology solutions have also been proposed.
These include hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which
are powered by an ICE and have an onboard battery
that cannot be charged from an external source,83
and PHEVs, which are powered by both a chargeable
battery pack and an ICE.84 HEVs and PHEVs have
been proposed as partial solutions for some MHDV
market segments where ZEV technologies are not
fully developed in order to offset some portion of
GHG and air pollutant emissions.85 Electric power
takeoff (ePTO) technologies may also be used in
conjunction with either conventional vehicles or ZEVs
to power auxiliary functions on a vehicle using an
onboard battery.86
Another proposed technology is the hydrogen
internal combustion engine (H2ICE), which uses
hydrogen to power an ICE. This technology has not
yet been deployed but has gained interest because
it requires lower purity (and therefore less
expensive) hydrogen than FCEVs and few
modifications to a traditional combustion engine,
potentially allowing it to be deployed more rapidly
than FCEVs. H2ICE has been suggested as an
interim solution to enable the development of
hydrogen production, distribution, and refueling
networks.87 H2ICE produces some NOx emissions,
though these can be minimized (but not
eliminated) with emission control technologies. EPA
rulemaking requires manufacturers to demonstrate
that H2ICE complies with criteria pollutant emissions
standards, including through the use of emission
control technologies where necessary.88 89 H2ICEs
have received interest from U.S. automakers for
heavy-duty and off-road applications, with some
models slated to enter production as early as
2025.90'91 Research by automakers is ongoing into
durability, fuel efficiency, and emission control
technologies to minimize NOx and CO2 emissions at
competitive costs. DOE has also awarded $10.5
million to advance research into H2ICEs.
Finally, natural gas-powered vehicles, including
CNG vehicles and LNG vehicles, are deployed in low
numbers today and have 15% lower tailpipe GHG
emissions compared to diesel.92 While only ZEVs
have zero tailpipe GHG and CAP emissions in line
with long-term goals, transitional technologies offer
near-term alternatives for fleets to achieve
compliance with emission standards.93
Acknowledging that the demands of MHDVs are
diverse and that ZEV technologies remain in their
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infancy in some market segments, the MHDV Plan
considers ZEV, hybrid, and alternative-fuel ICE
technologies to be viable transition options in the
near term (MYs 2025 to 2032) while setting a long-
term goal of a full ZEV transition across all market
segments by 2040, consistent with the Global MOU,
4.2.2 CURRENT MARKET STATUS AND OBJECTIVES
Since 2019, the market for commercial ZE-MHDVs
has rapidly expanded, with a cumulative estimate
of around 34,700 vehicles deployed as of
December 2023 (around 34,600 BEVs and 100
FCEVs) (see figure 9).94'95'96 Most deployments
have been Class 2B/3 BEVs used in local and
regional return-to-base operations such as last-
mile deliveries and e-commerce. Heavier BEVs
and FCEVs have been deployed in lower numbers,
including school buses, transit buses, and local
and regional freight operations. Tables D3 and D4
provide further information on cumulative annual
deployments, model availability, and additional
characteristics of ZEVs on the market as of 2023.
Simultaneously, ZEV technologies have rapidly
progressed. Between 2008 and 2022, lithium-ion
battery pack costs declined by 89% (in real 2022
dollars), falling to a low of $157/kWh.97 In 2023,
battery pack costs further declined to $133/kWh
across ail applications and $128/kWh for BEVs
(including LDVs).98 Meanwhile, volumetric energy
density has also substantially improved,
increasing eightfold between 2008 and 2020 to
450 Wh per liter.99 Fuel cell system costs and
performance have also rapidly improved. DOE
estimates show that LDV fuel cell system costs
have declined by almost 70% since 2008.'°° While
MHDV fuel cells and BEVs have different technical
requirements from LDVs—including increased
performance and lifetime requirements that make
them more costly for an equivalent systems-
improvements in LDV component technologies
and production capacity will also benefit MHDV
components. DOE has set ambitious targets to
further improve present-day and next-generation
battery and fuel cell technologies along measures
of cost, durability, performance, and lifetime.
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School Bus
Transit Bus
Class 2B-3 Local & Regional Freight
Class 4-6 Local & Regional Freight
Class 7-8 Local & Regional Freight
Refuse Trucks
2021
2022 2023
FCEV
100
c
a)
E
o
Q-
o
= 20
0
1 0
O
80
60
40
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
-Transit Bus
Class 7-8 Local & Regional Freight
Figure 9. Cumulative ZE-MHDV deployments, 2019 to 2023.
The number of ZE-MHDVs has grown rapidly, particularly for
local and regional Class 2B/3 BEVs. Sources: CALSTART,'02
NTD,103 World Resources Institute.'04
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Further progress is still needed. The Global MOU sets
a target of 30% new ZE-MHDV sales by 2030 and
100% by 2040. Assuming growth in this sector is
consistent with projections from the 2023 Annual
Energy Outlook (AEO),105 these targets imply that
177,000 new ZE-MHDVs will need to be sold in 2030
and 610,000 in 2040 (Figure 9). New ZE-MHDV
deliveries have grown by more than twentyfold
between 2019 and 2023, from under 1,000 vehicles
per year to nearly 20,000,,06'107 but reaching 2030
goals will require further scale-up—including rapid
expansion of ZEV manufacturing capacity, such as
manufacturing of batteries, fuel cells, and other
vehicle components; scale-up of charging and
refueling infrastructure stations; expansion of clean
hydrogen production; and investments in the
electric grid.h
Annual New ZE-MHDV Deployments, 2019 and 2023 AND
Projected Deployments Needed to Reach Global MOU Targets
Annual ZE-MHDV Annual ZE-MHDV
sales needed to reach sales needed to
30% sales target reach 100% sales
v
1 Vehicle Type
2019
2023 1
School Bus BEV
411
1,266
Transit Bus BEV
315
53
Transit Bus FCEV
10
0
Class 2B-3 Local & Regional Freight BEV
17
16,828
Class 4-6 Local & Regional Freight BEV
33
455
Class 7-8 Local & Regional Freight BEV
16
706
Class 7-8 Local & Regional Freight FCEV
0
30
BEV Refuse Trucks
2
20
Number of Vehicles
Figure 10. Annual new ZE-MHDV Sales, 2019 and 2023, compared to projected sales needed to reach Global MOU targets.
Substantial scale-up of vehicles, infrastructure, and fuels will be needed to reach targets. Sales projections are based on
base-year data from VIUS,'08 the NTD,'09 and bus industry sources,"0'and scaled using growth rates from the AEO, 2023
edition."2 Current ZEV sales estimates are from the NTD,"3 the World Resources Institute,"4 and CALSTART."5 Sources include
only delivered and operating vehicles within the calendar year and exclude vehicles committed or ordered but not delivered.
h Rapid expansions are currently underway for battery
production and other vehicle components. Analysis by Gohlke
et al. suggests that annual domestic battery manufacturing
capacity in the United States could be as high as 1,200 GWh by
2030. Current (as of July 2024) announced battery cell
factories are estimated to be sufficient to supply 10 million
electric vehicles per year. Section 5.2 contains a more detailed
discussion of U.S. manufacturing scale-up efforts.
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To reach ZE-MHDV deployment goals, the following
conditions must be met:
1) Achieve ZE-MHDV operational suitability in all
market segments. While ZEVs are
operationally suitable in many market
segments today, RDD&D can help improve
vehicle performance and market confidence
in market segments such as long-haul and
specialized vehicles,
2) Achieve competitive ZE-MHDV TCO (a metric
that encompasses up-front cost, fuel and
maintenance costs, and other operating
costs). Several strategies and critical
enablers—including encouraging ZE-MHDV
purchase through existing incentive
programs; supporting manufacturing scale-
up; and additional R&D into advanced
vehicles, fuels, and infrastructure—can help
achieve these aims.
3) Deploy infrastructure to support commercial
ZEVs, including associated investments in clean
fuel production and distribution processes (for
hydrogen) and grid transmission and distribution
upgrades (for electricity).
To meet these challenges, the MHDV Plan lays out
the following near-term ambitions:
• Achieve cost parity by 2030 between new
zero-emission, long-haul, heavy-duty trucks
and existing ICE long-haul trucks. Long-haul
trucks are the largest source of GHG emissions
in the sector and are thought to have the
greatest technical challenges to ZEV
adoption.116 Achieving this goal will require
extensive development of both BEVs and FCEVs
coupled with investments in energy
infrastructure at depots and regional hubs.
Government and industry partnerships present
a pathway to achieve these targets.
• Implement the National Zero-Emission
Freight Corridor Strategy through
collaborative planning and public-private
investments to realize 36% completion of the
National Highway Freight Network (NHFN) by
2030 and close to 100% by 2040. Achieving
this build-out will require close cooperation
and coordination with industry, fleets, utilities,
government, and community groups.
Multiple levers will be needed to enact these
strategies, many of which are already being
implemented in a diverse array of research
partnerships and funding programs. Subsequent
sections describe the actions needed to reach
these targets in each ZE-MHDV market segment.
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4.2.3 ZE-MHDV TECHNOLOGY STRATEGY
4.2.3.1 Economic and Operational Criteria
Commercial MHDV fleets make decisions based
on economics. To achieve widespread adoption,
MHDV decarbonization solutions, including ZEVs
and sustainable liquid fuels, must both be
economically competitive and meet or exceed
operational needs in the market segments for
which they are deployed. A third criterion, having
sufficient energy infrastructure (i.e.,
charging/refueling infrastructure), is also an
essential prerequisite for adoption and is further
discussed in section 4.2.4.
Economic competitiveness refers to the cost of
owning a vehicle—including up-front cost, fuel and
maintenance cost, resale value, and other
factors—which must be competitive with ICEs.
Economic competitiveness is typically measured
using TCO, which computes the value of initial and
recurring costs for a period (typically the fleet's
ownership period for a vehicle). TCO considers
vehicle purchase cost, resale value, fuel and
maintenance costs, financing costs, driver wages,
insurance, taxes and incentives, and tolls (using a
discount rate to represent the value of future
expenditures). Operational factors such as
penalties for cargo limitation and charging time
delays may also be included in measures of TCO.
Other more simplified metrics, such as total cost of
driving or levelized cost of driving, may also be
used in lieu of TCO in analyses of vehicles'
economic competitiveness. These metrics include
at minimum vehicle purchase costs and fuel
costs, but may exclude other costs such as driver
wages, insurance, and taxes.117'1,8
Figure 10 shows the projected cost of driving for a
range of diesel-powered MHDVs in 2025. For most
vehicles, labor is the greatest driver of costs and is
unlikely to differ for ZEVs. Fuel and maintenance
costs are frequently the second- or third-largest
cost drivers for many vehicles. In the near term,
ZEVs with higher up-front costs must be able to
realize cost savings in these areas to be
economically competitive. A key uncertainty for
ZEVs today is their lifetime and, relatedly, their
value on the used vehicle market. Further research
is needed on these factors to provide confidence
for fleets that ZEVs will retain their value over time.
BEVs may also be able to capture residual value at
their end of life through battery second-life
applications, such as stationary storage.119
Operational suitability refers to the performance
of the vehicle. Decarbonization solutions must
be able to complete the same vehicle duty
cycles as ICEs (including range, cargo load,
and power requirements).
MHDVs have different technical requirements from
LDVs. Many vehicles have more challenging duty
cycles, including greater power and torque
demands, higher durability needs, and longer
lifespans. At its most demanding, a Class 8 tractor
may require a propulsion system that delivers four
times the torque of an LDV, can power a vehicle
with a GVWR of up to 80,000 pounds, and lasts for
an average of 14 years and 1 million miles.120
Many studies of ZEV competitiveness operate
under the assumption that ZEVs must replace ICEV
operations on a one-to-one basis to achieve
market acceptance.121 While this may not always
hold in the future—for example, some case studies
suggest that fleets are beginning to adapt
operational patterns to accommodate BEVs with
shorter ranges122—this assumption is used to
evaluate ZEV readiness in this MHDV Action Plan.
Criteria that are commonly considered when
evaluating ZEV technology suitability include the
following factors:
• Ability to meet power demands, including
from driving (with and without cargo)
and auxiliary loads
• Vehicle range
• The time needed for en route charging/refueling
• Vehicle weight, including payload restrictions
from weight limitations.123
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Average 10-Year Per-Mile Cost of Driving - 2025, Diesel Trucks
o
a
a.
4—"
U)
O
O
Tractor
(Sleeper)
Tractor
(Day cab)
Class 8
Vocational
Class 6
Delivery
~ Vehicle E3 Financing
~ Maintenance ~ Tax & Fees
Class 4
Delivery
~ Fuel
Q Payload
Transit
Bus
~ Insurance
~ Labor
Class 8
Refuse
Figure 11. Projected cost of driving for diesei-powered vehicles in 2025. From Gohike, 2021.'24
Factors such as road grade, route variability, and
temperature can impact the technical
requirements needed for operationally suitable
ZEVs. Various ZEV solutions will need to meet the
extremely diverse demands in the MHD
transportation segment. Early adopters are
already using BEVs in some of their daily routes.
FCEVs can complement BEVs by catering to the
use cases that require longer driving ranges.
Operational suitability and economic criteria often
overlap, as different vehicles may have different
design requirements that in turn impact cost. A
study conducted by Argonne National Laboratory
(ANL) showed that, based on TCO, the optimum
technology choice between BEV and FCEV will vary
based on the vehicle design criteria, technology
cost assumptions, and fuel and energy prices.125 If
the technology targets set by DOE are met, both
BEVs and FCEVs will have lower cost of ownership
than the diesei counterparts. FCEVs will tend to
have a lower cost of ownership for longer-range
vehicle designs, and BEVs will likely have lower
ownership costs for shorter-range vehicles. The
exact trade-offs depend on assumed future
vehicle component costs, such as battery pack
and fuel cell costs.
Figure 12 shows the design range where BEVs and
FCEVs are economically attractive for several
MHDV applications from a TCO point of view,
overlaid with vehicle usage data from VIUS for
different MHDV applications. For many
applications, short-range BEVs may reach 50th-
or up to 80th-percentile mileage needs, while for a
smaller share of routes FCEVs may be more
economically beneficial. These considerations
influence the technology strategies chosen for the
MHDV market segment.
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BEV and FCEV TCO Competitiveness by Design Range
Class 8 Long-Haul
Class 8 Coach
Class 8 Transit
Class 6 Box
Class 8 Refuse
Class 3 Pickup
Class 5 Utility
Class 6 Step Van
Class 4 Step Van
Design Range (Miles)
Figure 12. BEV and FCEV TCO competitiveness by design range. BEVs have lower TCO for shorter-range designs for all MHD
applications. FCEVs have lower TCO for longer-range designs. VIUS 2021 data shows that both types of vehicles are needed
to meet the needs of the consumers. Results assume 2030 fuel costs of $4/kg hydrogen and $0.15/kWh electricity. Source:
Vijayagopal.UB
4.2.3.2 Technology Strategies by Market Segment
Converting MHDVs to clean solutions presents different tradeoffs and opportunities for BEVs and FCEVs
across MHDV market segments and will require different vehicle and infrastructure solutions and
investments. Coordination will be needed across all levels of government, including federal, state, and
local policy development, as well as collaborations with nongovernment actors in the vehicle and energy
infrastructure industries, with fleet operators, community organizations, research institutions, and more.
Figure 13 summarizes strategies to transition to ZE-MHDVs across all MHDV market segments.
^¦BEV: lower $/mile, even with
average VMT
Transition based on VMT
FCHEV: lower $/mile, even with
high VMT
50 90 99
Percentile daily VMT from VIUS 2021
200
400
600 800
1000
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Strategies to enable clean vehicle and fuel conversion for all MHDV applications
LOCAL & REGIONAL
RETURN-TO-BASE
~
~
SPECIALIZED
VEHICLES &
WORK TRUCKS
LONG-HAUL
ALL SEGMENTS
Local: Low-range requirement and return-to-base routes with long dwell time
align with today's BEV capabilities supported by affordable depot charging.
~
~
Regional: FCEVs could complement BEVs for
high-mileage routes with shorter periods of
inactivity. Both depot charging and regional
charging/refueling infrastructure are needed.
Demonstrate feasibility of BEVs and FCEVs
to meet power demands and duty cycle
requirements and understand charging and
refueling needs.
Support initial BEV and FCEV deployments
while reducing vehicle cost. Success for BEVs
and FCEVs will depend on development of
fueling/charging corridors and increased
availability of lower-cost, low-GHG H2.
Sustainable liquid
fuel for remote
operations, extreme
environments, and
legacy vehicles
Research and development for next-generation batteries, ZEVs, and
charging technologies.
Research and development for clean hydrogen and fuels production.
Investments in the electric grid, including programs to support vehicle-
grid integration.
Manufacturing and supply chain investments to enable ZEV and
infrastructure production.
Workforce development and training.
Figure 13. Strategies to enable clean vehicle and fuel conversion for all MHDV applications.
Local and Regional Return-to-Base
Local and regional return-to-base operations are
early candidates for decarbonization. While ZEVs
are deployed in low numbers today, favorable
duty cycles and economics suggest that rapid
expansion can occur in the near term—between
now and 2030.
Zero-emissions solutions for local and regional
return-to-base vehicles are priorities for
communities. Many of these vehicles operate near
population centers, and particularly near
communities with poor air quality. Drayage
trucks—those operating out of ports—are a key
example. Many ports are major sources of CAPs
and are in nonattainment or maintenance areas
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as designated by EPA,127 and a disproportionate
number of low-income communities and
communities of color reside near ports.128
Research has shown that zero-emission drayage
fleets could substantially reduce incidences of
premature mortality and asthma attacks in
affected communities due to reduced exposure to
PM2.5.129 School buses are another priority. More
than 95% of school buses are powered by diesel or
gasoline vehicles,130 and pollution from diesel
exhaust particles has been linked to higher
incidences of childhood cancer and asthma for
school children.131132 These health impacts are
often greater for low-income children and those
living in environmentally burdened communities,
who are disproportionately exposed to older,
higher-polluting buses.133 Research has shown that
switching to cleaner school buses improves
attendance among school children.134 Pursuing
zero-emission solutions for these vehicles that
maximize both climate change and air quality
benefits should be prioritized.
Local Return-to-Base
Local return-to-base vehicles, including Class 2B-
8 freight vehicles and school buses, drive an
average of 9,000 to 14,000 miles per year (Table
Dl) and include roughly 3.5 million vehicles used in
e-commerce, urban and last-mile delivery and
parcel delivery applications, and school buses.135'
136 Today these vehicles account for 11% of VMT (36
billion VMT) and 10% of all GHG emissions (41 MMT
CChe). Due to their comparatively low annual
mileage, low speeds, high efficiency, and return-
to-base operations, BEVs have been suggested as
a key solution for vehicles in this market segment.
These vehicles can utilize slow, overnight charging
at centralized locations such as depots ("depot
charging") to meet most of their needs, which
allows for lower infrastructure costs and the ability
to shift charging to less expensive times of day.137
BEVs have demonstrated operational viability in
this market segment. Many vehicles in this market
segment travel less than 100 to 150 miles per day,
making them suitable for today's BEV ranges.138139
School buses typically drive two routes per day, with
typical route distances below 100 miles and total
daily mileage below 200 miles.140 Demonstrations of
battery-electric cargo vans, step vans, and
medium-duty (md) box trucks used in local delivery
operations showed that they were able to operate in
an equivalent manner to ICEVs for typical daily
loads and ranges.141142 Demonstrations and pilot
projects of electric school buses (ESBs) have shown
that ESBs can meet the needs of school districts
across the country in a variety of settings and in
both hot- and cold-weather conditions.143 In
demonstrations of both freight vehicles and school
buses, high-speed en route charging was not
needed in a majority of cases, and ample downtime
allowed for opportunities for slow (level 2 [L2])
charging.144145146
BEVs are at or near TCO parity in some vehicle
classes, but cost reductions are needed for heavier
vehicles. Analysis by the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) suggests that Class 2B/3 freight
vehicles are competitive with diesel today on a total
cost of driving basis when vehicle purchase
incentives from IRA are considered.147 Other analysis
by the International Council on Clean
Transportation (ICCT) suggests that Class 2B/3
vehicles are competitive on a TCO basis with diesel
today even without tax credits, though vehicle
purchase costs remain higher on average than ICEV
counterparts (with manufacturer's suggested retail
price ranging from 15% to 45% higher than an
equivalent ICEV).148 Heavier vehicles (Class 4 and
above) may need additional cost reductions to
reach parity. Data on ESBs shows that these vehicles
are still approximately four times as expensive to
purchase as ICE equivalents.149150 While operational
cost savings can offset some of this and the TCO is
positive with incentives,151 purchase costs must
decline to achieve widespread adoption without
incentives. Analysis by ICCT suggests that medium-
(Class 4-6) and heavy-duty (Class 7-8) BEV freight
trucks are between 43% and 86% more costly to
purchase up front than equivalent diesel vehicles.152
Rapid deployment of BEVs is already occurring,
particularly for Class 2B/3 BEVs. Nearly 26,000
Class 2B/3 commercial vehicles were sold in the
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United States between 2017 and 2023, with the
majority sold in 2022 and 2023.153 These sales have
primarily been of BEV cargo vans used in urban
and last-mile delivery operations. Substantial
expansions are planned by major e-commerce
and parcel delivery companies, with Amazon
planning to deploy at least 100,000 electric
delivery vehicles in the United States by 2030;154
FedEx committing to 50% electric parcel delivery
vehicle purchases by 2025,100% by 2030, and full
fleet conversion by 2040;155 DHL planning to
purchase 80,000 BEVs by 2030 for last-mile
deliveries;156 and the U.S. Postal Service planning to
deploy 45,000 BEVs between 2026 and 2028.157
About 1,600 MD step vans and box trucks have also
been deployed to date (including vehicles used in
both local and regional operations).158 ESB
deployments grew by 550% between 2019 and
2023, driven by EPA's Clean School Bus Program.
which provides $5 billion in funding from 2022 to
2026 to school districts for vehicle and
infrastructure purchases. As of 2023, 3,792 ESBs
have been deployed in school districts across the
United States and a total of 8,820 have been
committed (awarded funding but not yet
deployed).159
Accelerating depot charging infrastructure
deployment is essential to enable further
adoption. Long lead times for depot electrification
are a major barrier to present-day BEV adoption,
impacting not only local return-to-base but many
other BEVs relying on a return-to-base depot
charging model. Section 3.2.4 of this action plan
provides more detail on specific actions needed to
address these barriers.
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications should also
be evaluated. "V2G" refers to when electricity from
vehicle batteries is discharged back into the grid.
ESBs in particular show great potential for V2G
applications, because school buses have high
periods of downtime both during the day and
during summer months. V2G can provide benefits
to both school districts and utilities—school
districts by providing an additional revenue
stream from power sales, and utilities by allowing
for better management of peak load periods.
Recent demonstrations in New York and California
have shown that V2G can be a feasible strategy
for ESBs.160161
Regional Return-to-Base
Regional return-to-base vehicles include roughly
3.7 million Class 2B-8 freight vehicles and transit
buses, accounting for 33% of VMT (109 billion VMT)
and 35% of energy consumption and GHG
emissions (1,912 trillion Btu and 144 MMT C02e).162163'
164 While sharing many similarities with local return-
to-base vehicles, their operations are characterized
by higher average VMT—ranging from 20,000 to
37,000 miles per vehicle per year—greater daily
driving distances, and greater route heterogeneity,
suggesting that a mix of both BEVs and FCEVs may
be needed to meet operational needs.
BEVs have demonstrated operational viability in
some, but not all regional routes. FCEVs may be
suited to other routes. While a majority of regional
operating days may be short distance, favoring
today's BEVs, a small number can be longer
distances.165 Demonstrations have shown that
heavy-duty (HD) BEVs are viable today for routes
of 200 miles or less—estimated at roughly 50% of
the regional HD market segment by the North
American Council for Freight Efficiency (NACFE).166
Operations data from a sample of passenger
transit vehicles (which may include transit buses,
shuttles, vans, and other passenger vehicles) in
NREL's FleetREDI database showed that 37% of
vehicles drive below 100 miles per day, 41%
between 100 to 200 miles per day, 16% between
200 and 300 miles per day, and 6% above 300
miles per day.167 Multishift operations are another
potential challenge, as they leave less time for
BEVs to recharge using low-speed depot charging
methods.168 To meet all regional use cases, longer
BEV ranges, mixed technology strategies such as
FCEV adoption, or operational innovations such as
mid-day en route or opportunity charging may be
needed. Developing regional networks of high-
speed charging and/or hydrogen refueling
infrastructure will be necessary to decarbonize
longer regional operations.
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Like local return-to-base, high up-front cost
remains a barrier for further adoption,
particularly for heavier vehicles and FCEVs.
Estimates from early-market demonstrations
suggest that battery-electric transit buses are
roughly 1.5 to 1.7 times as expensive as
conventional diesel buses, while fuel cell electric
buses are roughly twice as costly though costs
are projected to decline with higher production
volumes.169',7a 171 MD and HD BEVs are similarly more
expensive, as discussed in the local return-to-
base section. FCEV freight trucks may be as high
as three to four times as expensive as ICEV
counterparts.172 Furthermore, many conventional
heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) are purchased on the
used-vehicle market, creating a greater barrier to
financial viability for ZEVs.173
Deployment is occurring today, supported by
incentive programs. Through funding initiatives
such as the Federal Transit Administration (FTA)'s
Low- or No-Emission Grant Program, the number
of zero-emission buses has rapidly increased. The
NTD reports zero-emission buses were roughly 3%
of deployed Class 7-8 buses in 2022, while
CALSTART reports a total of close to 9% in 2023
(though their numbers include vehicles that were
ordered but not delivered).174175 Of these, roughly
95% were battery-electric buses and 5% were fuel
cell electric buses. HD BEVs have also been
deployed, primarily in drayage applications. As of
December 2023,1,162 vehicles have been
deployed, a majority of which are BEVs..176 While
CALSTART reports that only 44 FCEVs have been
deployed in MHDV trucking market segments as of
December 2023, voucher data from the California
Hybrid and Zero-Emission Truck and Bus Voucher
Incentive Project (HVIP) shows additional
unredeemed vouchers for 356 FCEVs as of June
2024, indicating anticipated near-term growth.177
Drayage trucks have additional considerations.
First, as mentioned, port emissions are major
contributors to air quality, and zero-emission
solutions for drayage trucks should be prioritized.
Second, ports supply infrastructure for many
transportation modes that will be undergoing
transformations over the coming decades-
including maritime, rail, and off-road cargo
handling equipment and yard trucks in addition to
MHDVs. Planning for decarbonized port
infrastructure capacity, including electricity,
hydrogen, and biofuel supply, should jointly
consider demands from all modes so that
coordinated, least-cost solutions can be identified.
In particular, BEV charging patterns and grid
needs should be considered jointly across all
modes, and optimized charging solutions should
be researched to minimize capacity needs and
grid impacts.
Specialized Vehicles and Work Trucks
Specialized vehicles and work trucks are
commercial MHDVs not used in the movement of
passengers or freight. This is the most
heterogeneous segment of MHDVs, encompassing
a wide range of body types and operational
requirements. Given the highly specialized nature of
many vehicles, which may be paired with auxiliary
equipment such as cranes, lifts, mixers, and other
components, and the low production volumes for
many vehicle types, this segment has been thought
of as particularly challenging to decarbonize, and
few ZEVs have been deployed to date.
Commercial Pickups
There are 3.8 million commercial pickups (Class 2B
and above, excluding vehicles used for personal
purposes) in the United States.178 These vehicles can
be used for a variety of purposes, including towing,
hauling cargo, and providing power to work sites,
and they can be paired with auxiliary equipment
such as snowplows. While most commercial pickups
are driven less than 13,000 miles per year on average
(Table Dl), substantial power is needed for towing
and hauling. Vehicles in this class typically have
payload capacities of three-quarters of a ton or
greater and can tow loads of 12,000 pounds or
more.179 These demands require substantial power
and substantially reduce fuel efficiency. Examples
from light-duty (LD) BEV pickup trucks suggest that
towing loads of 11,000 pounds may reduce range by
approximately half.180 Currently, battery-electric
models are under development, with some planned
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to be launched as early as 2025.181 Some Class 2B
BEV models are currently available, but primarily
used for personal use. However, major automakers
have been slower to develop zero-emission heavier-
duty commercial models. Ford has announced
plans for "multi-energy technology" for its HD Super
Duty® series, with production beginning in 2026,182
while GM has delayed launches of electric HD
pickups until 2035.183 Manufacturers are also
exploring other options such as FCEVs to meet the
hauling needs of this segment.184
Other Specialized Vehicles
There are roughly 2.6 million other MHDVs operating
in specialized market segments.185 These include
refuse and dump trucks, utility and other service
vehicles, concrete mixers, tow trucks and wreckers,
and more. A key characteristic of many specialized
vehicles is the use of auxiliary equipment, which
includes devices such as cranes, hydraulic lifts, and
pumps. While vehicle use data shows that many
vehicles in this market segment are driven short
distances—a majority of refuse trucks are driven less
than 150 miles a day, and most service vans and
aerial trucks (also known as bucket trucks) used in
utility and telecommunications applications are
driven less than 100 miles a day186187—demands from
auxiliary equipment can draw significant power that
is not reflected in driving mileage. A study of
hybridization potential for aerial trucks showed that
stationary work time (time spent operating auxiliary
equipment) ranged between three and six hours,
while driving time averaged 1.5 hours per day and 26
miles.188 Some specialized vehicles may also operate
in multishift operations with limited downtime. More
information is needed to better characterize different
operational patterns within this market segment.
Due to the specialized nature of this equipment,
the manufacturing process for these vehicles can
involve multiple parties, including truck original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) who
manufacture the cab and chassis, equipment
manufacturers who construct the auxiliary
equipment, and body builders and equipment
integrators who assemble the final vehicle.189 The
number of parties involved adds complexity to the
manufacturing process and can complicate the
development of new ZEV prototypes. To date, few
ZEVs have been deployed in this segment, with
CALSTART reporting 57 BEV refuse trucks on the
road as of December 2023.190 California HVIP
voucher data also shows that 10 BEV utility truck
vouchers have been redeemed as of June 2024,191
while Volvo reports one deployment of an electric
cement mixer in Germany.192 FCEV refuse trucks
have also been delivered in Australia and
Europe,193194 with North American demonstrations
planned for 2024 by some manufacturers.195 One
challenge to electrification is integrating demands
from the truck and the vehicle body;
manufacturers have considered designs
incorporating both demands into a single battery
or separating truck and body demands into
separate power sources.196 In some cases, ePTO
technologies have been deployed to power
auxiliary equipment using an electric battery.197
California HVIP voucher data shows that 239
vouchers have been redeemed for ePTO vehicles
for use with utility trucks.198 Feasibility studies have
shown that ePTO and PHEV configurations can
reduce CO2 emissions by 50% or more and NOx
emissions by 80% or more.199 However, it is
important to monitor the extent to which electricity
is used in real-world operations to power auxiliary
equipment rather than diesel. The HVIP program
includes reporting requirements for fleets
designed to assess ePTO utilization.200
Long-Haul Passenger and Freight
Decarbonizing long-haul HDVs is critical to
decarbonizing the MHDV mode. While accounting
for 7% of vehicles (l.l million vehicles), they drive
34% of miles (110 billion VMT) and produce 39% of
emissions (160 MMT), the majority of which is
produced from HD freight combination trucks.201202
While ZEV solutions are emerging in this market
segment, further demonstrations and
infrastructure deployment are needed to show
viability and spur investments.
Heavy-Duty Long-Haul Freight
Heavy-duty long-haul freight vehicles encompass
Class 7-8 tractors (including day cabs and
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sleeper cabs) with daily operational radiuses of
200 miles or greater from a home base.
Approximately 1.1 million vehicles operate in this
segment, producing 157 MMT of GHG emissions,
the single largest source out of all MHDVs. Today,
nearly all long-haul HDVs are powered by diesel,
with less than 1% supplied by CNG or LNG.203 No
ZEVs have been deployed to date, as critical en
route fueling infrastructure needed to support
long-haul routes does not yet exist.
Technology Options. Both BEVs and FCEVs may play
a role in the long-haul segment. However, key
technology and cost challenges must be resolved.
Today's diesel tractors are driven for roughly 1 million
miles over their full lifetimes, have ranges of around
800 to 1,400 miles, and can refuel in roughly 10 to 15
minutes.204'205 206 Developing decarbonization
solutions that can match the performance of today's
diesel vehicles will require careful consideration of
long-haul operational requirements.
BEVs are the most energy-efficient technology
with the potential to provide substantial fuel cost
savings compared to alternatives. However,
today's HD BEVs remain limited by low ranges
(typically 100 to 200 miles,207 though models with
ranges of up to 500 miles have been announced
and other prototypes are in development208'209 210);
heavy batteries, which can add between 6,500
and 13,500 pounds over a diesel vehicle for BEVs
with 250 miles of range;211 and a lack of fast-
charging corridor stations (with 1- to 2-megawatt
[mw] speeds required to supply en route stops).212
FCEVs' longer ranges, more rapid refueling time,
and lighter weight address some of these
challenges. Like BEVs, they require the build-out of
rapid corridor refueling infrastructure to be
adopted, as well as a hydrogen production and
distribution network. For both BEVs and FCEVs,
more research is needed on technology durability
and lifespan.213 214
Operating data collected by NREL's FleetREDI
database show that long-haul combination trucks
have an average operating time of 9.6 hours per
day with few starts and stops and an average
daily mileage of 457 miles.215'216 This is consistent
with DOT hours-of-service regulations, which limit
the number of driving hours for freight drivers to 11
hours with a 10-hour break in between and a
mandatory 30-minute break every 8 cumulative
hours.217 For many vehicles, this places a practical
limit on the miles per day that a vehicle can travel.
BEVs with 500 miles of range or more may be able
to take advantage of mandatory driver rest
periods to recharge, limiting the need for rapid en
route charging under most circumstances.218
However, around 18% of long-haul truck drivers
operate in teams, which avoids the necessity of
stopping and places additional demands on
vehicle range and recharging/refueling speed.219
FCEVs or BEVs coupled with high-speed (in excess
of 1 MW) recharging infrastructure may be more
suited to such applications. Weight requirements
are also varied. Some trucks may carry volume-
limited cargo, while others may carry weight-
limited cargo. Estimates from surveys of fleet
operators and weigh-in-motion data suggest that
between 10% to more than 50% of trucks may
reach maximum allowable weight limits.220'221
Further data collection is needed to better
understand weight requirements. Operations that
haul volume-limited cargo may be less penalized
by the heavier weights of today's BEVs.
Sustainable liquid fuels are also a candidate to
decarbonize long-haul routes, particularly in the
near term while ZEV availability remains limited.
Companies like PepsiCo have used B100 (100%
biodiesel) and RD in early tests along rural
routes.222 While sustainable liquid fuels have fewer
of the performance challenges faced by ZEVs,
substantial uncertainty remains about future
availability, CI, and cost.
Other considerations for decarbonization include
route grade, climate, and the ability to install
infrastructure along rural corridors, which
depends on local grid conditions and economic
considerations.
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Table 2 summarizes present-day challenges and uncertainties for long-haul decarbonization options.
Table 2. Key Uncertainties and Needs for Zero-Emission Long-Haul Freight Operations
Category
Uncertainty
BEV
FCEV
TCO
Can vehicle
and fuel costs
achieve these
targets?'
• Battery cost
below $80/kWh
• Electricity cost
below
$0.18/kWh223
• Fuel cell cost
below $90/kW
• Hydrogen cost
below $4-
5/kg224
Fuel costs competitive with
diesel.
Vehicle
Operations
Weight limited?
Significant penalty.225
Battery energy
gravimetric density
improvements
needed.
Minor penalty.226
Hydrogen storage
gravimetric energy
density could be
improved.
No penalty; same as diesel
vehicle.
Volume
limited?
No penalty for higher weight.
Single shift?
500 miles likely to be
sufficient range; long-
duration slower
charging at
destinations such as
travel centers can be
used.
500 miles and
current dispensing
speeds likely to be
sufficient.
No penalty; same as diesel
vehicle.
Multishift?
Longer ranges/sub-
MW to MW+ fast
charging needed.
Longer
ranges/faster
refueling (target 8-
10 kg/minute)
needed.
' BEV and FCEV TCO results are sensitive to the assumed price of diesel and incentives assumed. One study found BEV TCO
competitiveness with diesel at electricity costs as high as $0.3/kWh and battery costs as high as $123/kWh. Source: Basma, H. Buysse,
C., Zhou Y. and Rodriguez, F. 2023. Total Cost of Ownership of Alternative Powertrain Technologies for Class 8 Long-Haul Trucks in the
United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation, theicct.ora/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/tco-alt-powertrain-
lona-haul-trucks-us-apr23.pdf
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Temperatures
Between 20°
No operational challenges.227
and 52°C.
Outside of
Some operations may
High-temperature
No challenges for 100% RD
20° and 52°C.
require improved
operations result in
meeting ASTM D975.230
performance,
power derates and
Biodiesel meeting ASTM
particularly for lower
necessitate
D7467 is limited to 20% or
temperatures.228
enhanced
solutions.229
else vehicle retrofitting
required for 100% biodiesel
meeting ASTM D6751.231
Extreme cold
temperature requires
Extreme cold
warm-up strategies.
temperature
requires warm-up
strategies.
Energy
Can
Requires robust
Requires robust
Requires feedstock and
Infrastructure
technology
regional development
regional high-
conversion technologies of
energy
of high-speed
speed refueling
new feedstocks for other
infrastructure
charging network;
network; sufficient
modal demands such as
needs be
sufficient clean grid
clean hydrogen
aviation, which also support
met at a
capacity.
production and
reducing cost of biofuels for
national
distribution
long-haul since biofuel
scale?
networks.
processes tend to co-
produce a slate of fuels.
Lifetime
Can the
Requires further demonstration of million-
No penalty; same as diesel
technology
mile lifetime and durability.232-233
vehicle.
demonstrate
comparable
lifetime and
durability to
diesel?
Economic Competitiveness. The success of both
BEVs and FCEVs will depend on competitive TCO
compared to ICEVs. This includes vehicle purchase
costs (which are substantially driven by
component costs of batteries or fuel cells) and
fuel costs (including the levelized cost of electricity
or hydrogen, inclusive of charging/refueling
infrastructure costs borne by the fleet, compared
to diesel prices). The 21st Century Truck
Partnership found that BEVs can become
competitive with ICEVs if battery costs are below
$84/kWh, electricity costs are below $0.18/kWh,
and comparable diesel costs follow a "high"
scenario based on the 2022 AEO.234 Other analysis
by Ledna et al.235 found that a 500-mile BEV can
become competitive on a total cost of driving
basis with diesel at a battery cost of $80/kWh or
lower, electricity costs of $0.18/kWh to $0.20/kWh,
and diesel costs of $3.75/gallon or higher, without
vehicle purchase incentives. Finally, analysis by
ICCT found that BEVs could become cost
competitive at battery costs as high as $123/kWh,
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electricity costs between $0.15/kWh and
$0.30/kWh, and diesel fuel prices of $4.13/gallon or
higher.236 For fuel cells, Ledna et al.237 found that
FCEVs can become competitive at fuel cell costs
below $90/kW, hydrogen prices below $4/kg to
$5/kg, and diesel prices above $3.7l/gallon. These
results are highly sensitive to the diesel prices
assumed and the presence of incentives. To
achieve FCEV competitiveness, HFTO has set a
target of $80/kW for fuel cell component costs by
2030 for a 275-kW fuel cell system and a levelized
cost of hydrogen (inclusive of production, delivery,
and dispensing) of $4/kg by 2031.238
More vehicle component research is needed to
address long-haul technology challenges.
Developing viable and cost-competitive ZEVs
must be a priority for DOE research efforts on
batteries, fuel cells, and vehicles. Research and
development on lower-cost vehicle components
and manufacturer scale-up are needed to lower
vehicle purchase costs. Demonstrations and data
collection are also needed to guide investments,
including demonstrations of the viability of high-
speed corridor charging and refueling. Clean
hydrogen production costs must also fall for fuel
cells to become competitive, and electricity must
be delivered at operationally appropriate speeds
and cost-competitive rates for BEVs. The
development of a national freight corridor
infrastructure network should also be a crucial
priority for ZEVs.
Intercity Passenger Buses
Intercity buses, or "over-the-road buses" are
buses designed for transporting passengers over
long distances. In the United States, they serve
more than 500 million passenger trips per year
and are 1% of total MHDV emissions.239'240 241 In the
United States today, there are approximately
25,000 buses operated by nearly 1,400 privately
owned carriers.242
Intercity buses share similar characteristics as
long-haul freight trucks, including large vehicle
size (typically 35 feet or more in length) and long
route distances,243 which may necessitate rapid en
route refueling. Several ZEV demonstrations have
already occurred in the United States, including
testing of BEVs on routes between Los Angeles and
San Diego, Sacramento and San Francisco, and
Portland and Seattle.244 FCEVs and sustainable
liquid fuels are also being tested and deployed
along long-distance routes in Europe.245 246 While
further research is needed on typical route and
operational characteristics to better understand
charging/refueling requirements, decarbonizing
intercity buses will likely require similar strategies
as long-haul decarbonization, including
deployment of high-speed recharging/refueling
infrastructure along key routes. BEVs and FCEVs
are both candidates for this segment and may
play complementary roles, with BEVs electrifying
shorter routes with more flexible refueling
schedules and FCEVs electrifying longer routes.
Sustainable liquid fuels may also play a role for
routes where technology characteristics or
infrastructure needs make zero-emission buses a
less competitive prospect and can help
decarbonize these vehicles in the near term as
zero-emission solutions emerge. It is important to
note that supporting intercity and transit bus
expansion can also lead to decarbonization by
displacing emissions from LDVs; section 4.3 and
the Convenience and Efficiency Action Plans
discuss such strategies in greater detail.
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4.2.3.3 Near- Term Actions
Coordinated action among federal, state, local, and private actors will be needed to support expanded
ZE-MHDV deployments in the near term (before 2030) and transitions toward 100% ZE-MHDV sales in the
medium-term and long-term (2030 to 2040 and beyond). Actions should address ZEV needs at different
phases of market development, supporting expansion from early adoption into broader market
acceptance. Needed actions are as follows:
1) Support demand for early-market ZE-MHDVs through existing state and federal incentive programs.
Vehicle purchase incentives are an important policy tool in early market phases to encourage early
adoption and production scale-up,247 particularly in market segments such as local and regional
return-to-base where ZEV adoption is accelerating. Thanks to legislation including BIL and IRA, historic
levels of funding are available for ZE-MHDV purchase across multiple federal agencies. These include:
• EPA's Clean School Bus Program, the Clean Ports Program, and funding under the Diesel
Emissions Reduction Act
• DOT'S Low or No Emission Grant Program for transit buses and funding under the Congestion
Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement program
• Tax credits and incentive programs established by IRA and BIL
• State and local incentives, such as California's HVIP. the EnerglIZE Commercial Vehicles Project.
the New York Truck Voucher Incentive Program, and others, can provide additional funding for
vehicle purchases.
These and other incentives are further described in Chapter 6.3: Funding and Financing
for Deployment.
Loan guarantees are another tool to address the present-day uncertainty surrounding ZEV
financing. Today, commercial lenders may be risk averse due to uncertainty surrounding the resale
values of ZEVs. State and federal governments can consider loan guarantees for ZEV financing to
reduce risks for lenders while more data becomes available.248 DOE's Loan Programs Office (LPO)
has the authority under the Title 17 Clean Energy Financing Program to offer loan guarantees for
clean energy technologies, including partial guarantees of commercial debt.
2) Support ZEV manufacturing scale-up and supply chains. ZEV and component technology
manufacturing scale-up (including batteries and fuel cells) is crucial to enabling cost savings
through economies of scale. Working in concert with vehicle purchase incentives to support ZEV
demand, manufacturing incentives can further spur increased production of vehicles, components,
and charging/refueling infrastructure equipment. Incentives established by IRA invest billions of
dollars in domestic supply chains, critical minerals recycling, and clean energy manufacturing that
can be used to scale ZEV manufacturing programs. Standardization—for example, of transit bus
models—can also enable vehicle cost reductions, and the purchase of standard vehicle models is
recommended by DOT for applicants to its Low and No Emission Grant Program.249 Section 5.2 further
discusses programs and targets for ZEV manufacturing scale-up and the scaling of supporting
charging/refueling infrastructure and fuel production components.
3) Simultaneously, support expansion of ZEVs into new applications, including the specialized vehicles
and work trucks market segment and the long-haul market segment. The following actions are
needed to expand ZEV adoption to these segments:
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a. Continue research on ZEV technologies. This includes research on component technologies-
batteries and fuel cells—with the aim of reducing costs, improving efficiency, improving specific
energy (for batteries), and other performance goals, as well as improving manufacturing
efficiency and production processes. Research is also needed on vehicle efficiency (including
component lightweighting and aerodynamic efficiency), vehicle durability and reliability to meet
the needs of long-haul operations, and charging/refueling station infrastructure. This research
will also enable reduced cost and improved performance for ZEVs in more established market
segments. DOE funds an array of programs aimed at improving ZEV technologies and
infrastructure, as discussed in section 4.2.1. Section 5.5 further expands on ZEV research, analysis,
and data needs and ongoing funding programs to support these efforts. Part of this effort should
include target setting—that is, the identification of component cost and performance needs for
ZEVs to become economically and operationally viable in all MHDV market segments.
b. Support ZEV development and demonstration for specialized and long-distance operations. Few full
ZEV models are available for specialized operations today. The federal government should
encourage partnerships between OEMs, auxiliary equipment manufacturers, and vehicle integrators
to develop and demonstrate full ZEV models, including evaluating full-range, auxiliary load, towing,
and trailing needs to serve median and full-market use cases. Demonstrations of BEVs and FCEVs
along real-world long-haul freight corridors are also needed, including demonstrations of high-
speed charging and refueling infrastructure. The data collected from such demonstrations will be
invaluable in determining relative strengths and weaknesses of each technology and in dictating
future research and investment needs. Such demonstrations will also benefit intercity buses, which
will have similar range and refueling requirements. The SuperTruck 3 Initiative, a partnership between
DOE and vehicle manufacturers, includes funding for development and demonstration of BEVs and
FCEVs in MD and long-haul freight market segments.
c. Expand data collection and analysis. Expanded data collection efforts are needed to inform
analysis on ZEV duty cycles, vehicle power requirements, and infrastructure needs across a wide
range of applications, which can in turn direct investments into ZEV prototypes and be used in
research on ZEV loads and infrastructure needs. This is particularly important for specialized
vehicle applications where data is sparse. NREL's FleetREDI database contains information about
driving patterns for a range of specialized, passenger, and freight MHDVs. However, this
repository or other such tools could be expanded to include additional analysis:
i. Expanded data collection for ZEV duty cycles and operations, particularly for long-haul
and specialized vehicles and work trucks. This should include energy demand from
auxiliary loads. Additional data on long-haul operations, such as telematics data and
surveys of driver operations, is needed to better characterize the portion of operations that
are suitable for ZEVs with today's technology and drive further research and development
aims. Additional data is also needed on the towing needs of HD pickups.
ii. Evaluate real-world PHEV energy consumption and emissions for specialized vehicles.
Studies of specialized vehicles conducted before 2020 have shown that PHEV
demonstrations can produce substantial emissions reductions compared to diesel
vehicles by electrifying auxiliary loads. However, questions remain on the extent to which
such vehicles will be operated in electric mode in real-world fleets. The federal
government, in partnership with private actors, should support research (surveys and data
collection efforts) on real-world PHEV operations to evaluate the extent to which these
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vehicles achieve emissions reductions. Support for such vehicles should be tied to data
reporting requirements to achieve these aims.
4) Support charging/refueling infrastructure deployment and a cost-competitive clean fuel supply.
This is a critical component of supporting competitive ZEV TCO and operational viability for ail market
segments and is discussed in section 4.2.4.
5) Existing federal regulatory actions by EPA and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) will lower emissions across ail MHDVs and improve fuel economy for lighter vehicles. These
are discussed in the section below.
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These actions, working in conjunction with one
another and enabled by strong collaborative
partnerships across governments, industry,
academia, and nonprofits, along with additional
actions such as education and workforce
development, can ensure that the MHDV Plan's core
goals are met—including expanding ZEV sales into
the broader market (30% sales by 2030 and 100% by
2040), achieving full ZEV cost parity with ICEVs in the
long-haul heavy-duty truck market segment by
2030, and achieving phased build-out of a national
corridor charging/refueling network.
The SuperTruck 3 Initiative
The SuperTruck 3 Initiative is a DOE-funded public-
private partnership with HD vehicle manufacturers
aimed at advancing MHDV decarbonization. While
prior iterations of the SuperTruck Initiative focused
on improving HD truck freight efficiency,
specifically 18-wheeler fuel efficiency (SuperTruck 1
and SuperTruck 2), the current program focuses
specifically on decarbonizing MHDVs. A total of
$127 million has been awarded to five projects led
by PACCAR Inc., Volvo Group North America LLC,
Daimler Trucks North America LLC, Ford Motor
Company, and General Motors LLC. SuperTruck 3
participants are developing full battery-electric
and fuel cell power trains for MHD trucks to
demonstrate 75% reduction in GHG and air
pollution emissions as well as reduce the TCO
when compared to a 2020/2021 model-year truck.
The program also includes demonstrations of MW
charging stations.250 251
Regulatory Actions
Federal Emissions Standards
Federal emissions standards set by EPA will spur
near-term ZE-MHDV adoption and emissions
reductions across all market segments. EPA's
mission is to protect human health and the
environment. The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set
and enforce emissions standards for new motor
vehicles, including MHDVs. In March 2024, EPA
released final rulemaking governing NOx, PM2.5, and
GHG emissions from passenger cars and light-
and medium-duty (Class 2B to 3) trucks252 and
GHG emissions from heavy-duty (Class 4-8)
trucks and buses.253 These standards govern new
vehicles sold during MYs 2027 to 2032. EPA
standards are performance based and
technology neutral—that is, they specify emissions
standards rather than mandating the choice of a
particular technology. Compliance with new EPA
standards can be achieved using ZEVs, HEVs,
PHEVs, alternative-fuel ICEVs, and emissions
control technologies on conventional ICEVs.
New EPA standards were developed through a
multiyear process of technology assessment,
regulatory cost and benefit analyses, and
engagement with a multitude of stakeholders,
including community groups and environmental
justice organizations; engine and vehicle
manufacturers and suppliers; labor groups; and
state, local, and Tribal governments. For MD
vehicles (including commercial Class 2B/3 trucks
included in this action plan), these standards are
anticipated to reduce GHG emissions by 44% by
MY 2032 compared to MY 2026. For HD vehicles,
these regulations are anticipated to reduce GHG
emissions by 25% to 60% by MY 2032 compared to
MY 2026 across covered vehicle classes and
applications.
Federal Fuel Economy Standards
In June 2024, NHTSA, a DOT agency, announced
final fuel economy standards for heavy-duty
pickup trucks and vans (HDPUVs).254 HDPUVs
include Class 2B and 3 work trucks and vans,
which may fall under the local and regional
return-to-base and specialized vehicles and work
trucks market segments within this MHDV Plan.
These standards will cover MYs 2030 to 2035 and
will mandate that fleet average fuel efficiency
increases by 10% per year between MY 2030 and
2032 and 8% per year between MY 2033 and 2035.
Like EPA standards, these standards are
performance based and technology neutral.
NHTSA estimates that these standards will result in
a cumulative 5.6 billion gallons of avoided
gasoline consumption between now and 2050
and cumulative emissions reductions of 55 MMT of
CO2 during the same period.
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4.2.4 ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURE AND CORRIDORS
Charging/refueling infrastructure is a critical need
for the success of MHDV ZEVs. Regardless of the
technology adopted, a transition to ZEVs will
require major infrastructure investments, covering
production/generation, transport/distribution, and
dispensing of electricity and hydrogen at
dedicated stations suitable for various MHDVs.
These investments require careful planning,
technology harmonization, sequencing, and
coordination across multiple stakeholders,
including fleets, vehicle and infrastructure
manufacturers, retail fuel providers and depot
operators, landowners, electric utilities, hydrogen
producers and distributors (for FCEVs), local
planning offices, and state and federal regulatory
agencies. Federal leadership on infrastructure-
related developments and deployment can help
ease barriers, promote collaboration among these
stakeholders, and ensure support at all stages of
network development, including developing
standards, protocols, and best practices; funding
early deployments; convening stakeholders;
providing technical assistance; providing long-
term vision; and more.
Different ZEVs will have different
charging/refueling infrastructure needs. Most ZE-
MHDVs are unable to use existing LDV
charging/refueling infrastructure due to size, on-
site clearance and turning radii, refueling capacity
(for FCEVs), and trailer requirements.255 256
Charging and refueling infrastructure must meet
the mobility needs of a given MHDV use case,
including adequate charging/refueling speed and
cost given specific fleet duty cycles. Some MHDV
operations with high downtime may benefit from
low-speed, long-duration charging—for example,
overnight at depots. Others may require high-
speed charging or hydrogen refueling to minimize
disruptions to operations. Fleet considerations will
also impact charging/refueling options—for
example, smaller fleets may be more reliant on
semiprivate or public stations.
Planning for charging and refueling infrastructure
is essential. Thousands of sites will be needed,
requiring major investments and complex
coordination between multiple stakeholders-
including fleets, retail fuel providers, depot
operators, logistics centers, utilities, site owners,
and local and state regulatory agencies.
Moreover, supplying ZEVs with electricity and
hydrogen will require long-term planning for
energy production and transport. U.S. utility-scale
electricity generation in 2023 totaled 4,178
terawatt-hours (TWh).257 Studies by NREL and ICCT
have estimated that MHDV BEVs may add
between 8 and 70 TWh of electricity demand to
the grid by 2030 (less than 1% to 2% of 2023
demand).258'259 260 Early-market demand for ZE-
MHDVs and charging/refueling infrastructure will
be concentrated in states and counties that are
likeliest to succeed first,261 such as regions with
high freight activity and market-enabling
regulations, as well as provide reasonable
expectations of predictable utilization for charging
and refueling infrastructure. By 2050, demand
from BEVs could range between under 200 TWh to
over 500 TWh, or 4% to 11% of 2023 electric
generation.262'263 If the majority of long-haul
vehicles are FCEVs, projections suggest that future
hydrogen demands could be as high as 9 MMT by
2050.264 If this hydrogen is produced from
electrolysis using grid electricity, this could add
roughly 400 TWh of electric demand, or roughly
10% of 2023 generation (assuming electrolyzer
efficiencies based on HFTO technical targets265).
Substantial uncertainty is inherent in these
estimates, which will depend on the number of
BEVs and FCEVs adopted, their usage (annual
miles traveled), their fuel efficiency, and (for
FCEVs) the way hydrogen is produced.
While the expected number of BEVs and FCEVs in
different applications is unknown and will depend
on future technology progress, manufacturer
investments, fleet needs, fuel costs and
availability, and other factors, the need to provide
hydrogen refueling and BEV charging solutions is
growing rapidly. This infrastructure should meet
the following criteria:
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• Be appropriate for MHDV duty-cycles and
vehicle needs
• Be cost-effective (supporting TCO
competitiveness for fleets)
® Be deployed in a timely manner as ZEVs are
adopted and sequenced in such a way that
minimizes stranded and underutilized assets.
Planning for deployments must start now to
address the substantial investments needed,
regardless of the balance of BEVs and FCEVs.
Planning needs include charging/refueling
network and corridor planning and prioritization,
transmission, distribution, and capacity upgrades,
as well as coordination and regulatory alignment
at local, state, and federal levels. Infrastructure
plans must also be sensitive to changing market
conditions, especially emerging adoption patterns
between BEVs and FCEVs and evolving vehicle
charging/refueling needs as well as other trends
impacting future electricity and energy systems.
Planning must be undertaken by different sets of
stakeholders from myriad private-sector
industries and at all levels of government. Private
actors can begin to plan for their near-term
needs, such as constructing local depots and
regional stations to support current adoption.
More coordinated action between government
and private actors is likely to be needed to support
national corridor network development. The
following sections lay out strategies to deploy BEV
charging and hydrogen refueling networks, with a
section focusing specifically on corridor charging
and refueling networks for long-haul ZEVs. Near-
term actions are laid out in the final section.
4.2.4. J BEV Charging Infrastructure
Current Status and Charging
Infrastructure Needs
Estimating current MHDV charging station
deployment is challenging due to limited data
availability. The Alternative Fuels Data Center
(AFDC) reports that as of June 2024, there were
87,731 available and planned L2 and direct current
fast-charging (DCFC) stations in the United States.
Of these, 521 support access to MD (Class 3-5)
vehicles and 155 to HD (Class 6-8) vehicles266
(figure 14). However, this estimate may not
consider all private "behind-the-fence" (BTF)
charging installations; for example, in the state of
California alone there were 215 completed and 13
projected private charging infrastructure stations
for school buses as of June 2024.267 Despite this
uncertainty, it is clear that substantial scale-up of
MHDV charging infrastructure will be needed—at
private, semiprivate, and public locations in
regional hubs and along corridors.
22.0 kW |
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d
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Public and Private MHDV-Accessible Level 2 arid DCFC Stations
Charging Type: ~ DCFC A L2 MHDV Station Accessibility: • Class 3-5 • Class 6-8
Figure 14. Public and private MHDV-accessibie L2 and DCFC stations. Additional private stations may be deployed but not
reported in AFDC data. Source: AFDC.2SS
Charging infrastructure needs will vary by MHDV
market segment. If present-day patterns hold, a
majority (94%) of ZEVs are likely to operate in Local
and Regional Return-to-Base and Specialized
Vehicles and Work Trucks market segments,
accounting for approximately 61% of MHDV energy
consumption.269 Evidence from the 2021 VIUS
shows that more than 80% of MHDV trucks in all
market segments have access to a home base,
suggesting that a depot-based charging model
may be feasible for many of these vehicles as they
convert to BEVs (Share of MHDVs with Access to
Home Base by Class and Market Segment
Figure 15). Depot charging is convenient (requiring
no unplanned downtime) and cost-effective
(charging at lower power levels reduces both cost
of charging equipment and cost of electricity270),
and it avoids placing unnecessary stress on
batteries. Depot charging can also enable shifting
and managing charging to reduce peak loads
and adjust to high-cost periods. Some vehicles,
particularly Class 2B/3, may rely on L2 charging at
residential locations, like LDVs. These forms of
charging are being deployed today, requiring
large near-term investments and planning.
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Share of MHDVs with Access to Home Base by Class and Market Segment
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Residential
Commercial/industrial
Figure 15. Share of MHDVs with access to home base by class and market segment. "Residential home base" refers to vehicle
home base location in private residences. "Commercial/industrial home base" refers to vehicle home base located in
commercial/industrial sites. Source: VIUS.27'
For BEVs traveling longer distances (longer regional
passenger and freight, or vocations with high power
demands), opportunity charging during midshift
breaks or en route charging may be needed to
extend range. Atlas Public Policy estimates that
between 10% and 25% of local and regional BEV
fleets may use en route or opportunity charging at
speeds of 150 kW to 350 kW.272 Regional, publicly
accessible charging stations can meet these needs
and address gaps for small fleets and vehicles
traveling longer routes, as well as provide a starting
point for the development of a broader national
network. Strategically located stations—near ports,
warehouses, distribution centers, and other freight
activity hubs—with adequate station size and
parking requirements to support larger vehicles and
trailers will be needed to supply en route charging
at speeds of 150 kW and above outside of depots
and provideaccess to long-duration charging for
small fleets. Finally, for long-haul BEVs, a national
network of corridor charging stations will be needed.
The decision to use each of these different
charging options will be determined by both cost
and ability to meet the transportation needs of an
MHDV user/fleet/operator. Table 3 summarizes
charging options for different MHDV applications.
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Table 3. BEV Infrastructure Requirements by Market Segment and Technology.
Adapted from Sujan et al. (forthcoming).278
Market
Segment
Charging Options
Operational Considerations
Local and
Regional
Return-to-
Base
• Off-Shift Charging:
o BTF depot charging (larger fleets)
o Semiprivate or public access charging
(smaller fleets)
• On-Shift Charging:
o Opportunity charging at
loading/unloading zones
o High-speed en route charging
• Right-sizing battery and charging
infrastructure
• Downtime and route predictability
• Grid capacity/siting
• Co-located generation and storage
• Charging flexibility
Specialized
Vehicles and
Work Trucks
• Off-Shift Charging:
o BTF depot charging (larger fleets)
o Semiprivate or public access charging
(smaller fleets)
• On-Shift Charging:
o Opportunity charging at work sites
o High-speed en route charging
• Right-sizing battery and charging
infrastructure, considering towing and
auxiliary loads
• ePTO plug-in opportunities at work sites
• Other considerations same as Local
and Regional Return-to-Base
Long-Haul
Passenger
and Freight
• Off-Shift Charging:
o Truck stops/travel centers
• On-Shift Charging:
o High-speed en route charging
• National network needed
• Rural infrastructure considerations (grid
capacity, transmission/distribution)
National-level analysis of medium- and heavy-
duty battery electric vehicle (MHD-BEV) charging
needs has been conducted by several groups.
ICCT273 projects that 522,000 overnight (50-150
kW) chargers, 28,500 fast (350 kW) and 9,540
ultrafast (2 MW) chargers will be needed by 2030
to support 1.1 million MHD-BEVs. Atlas Public
Policy274 projects that 470,000 to 564,000 10-150
kW depot charging ports, 254,000 L2 home
charging ports (to support some Class 2B/3
trucks), and 7,000 to 32,000 150-350 kW
opportunity charging ports will be needed in 2030
for a vehicle fleet of roughly 1 to 1.5 million MHD-
BEVs. Around 10,000 to 19,000 2-MW fast-charging
ports are also estimated to be needed to meet
2030 demands (including long-haul needs).
Regional variation in adoption is expected in the
early market, with adoption clustered in states
with ZEV-friendly policies, such as California.275 For
example, at the state level, the California Energy
Commission estimates a need for 109,497 depot
chargers ranging from 20 to 150 kW and 5,527 en
route chargers ranging from 350 kW to 1 MW by
2030 to support the deployment of 155,000 MHD-
BEVs.276 Preliminary analysis by NREL projects a
need for 2.3 million additional charging ports by
2032 across five states (California, Oklahoma,
Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New York) to support the
adoption of 3.9 million PEVs of all vehicle classes
(including LDVs).277 Further analysis is needed at
local, regional, state, and national levels to refine
estimates of charger needs and assess potential
grid impacts of MHD-BEV adoption.
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Costs of charging stations will vary depending on
charging types, station capacity, and required grid
upgrades. Atlas Public Policy estimates nationwide
hardware and project costs at between $100
billion and $160 billion (excluding electrical
upgrades covered by utilities).279 Fleets can
minimize costs by choosing appropriate forms of
charging and right-sizing BEV batteries and
charging infrastructure to meet operational needs.
Strategies such as VGI (including managed
charging) and co-location of renewable power
and storage technologies may also help minimize
costs for both fleets and station operators. These
are discussed in the next section.
Charging Types and Technologies
Charging stations provide a location at which PEVs, including BEVs and PHEVs, can connect to a power
source to recharge their batteries. Two primary technologies are used to recharge MHD BEVs:517
• L2 charging equipment, which uses alternating current (AC) at 208 or 277 volts, generally
supporting power of 2.9 to 19.2 kW, with higher power L2 equipment on the horizon.
• DCFC equipment, which enables rapid charging at speeds above 19.2 kW. Typical DCFC
speeds today range from 50 to 500 kW, depending on equipment capabilities, with stations
under development to enable speeds of 1 MW or more.
MHDV charging needs are defined by both the speed at which charging occurs and the
operational context of charging. They can be broadly classified into three categories (Figure 13):
Depot charging: L2 and DCFC ranging from 10 to 150 kW that occurs during off shift periods at a
centralized location (such as a depot).518'5,9 Depots are typically private access, BTF charging.
Smaller fleets may charge at semiprivate or public locations.
• Opportunity charging: charging that takes place midshift during times when the vehicle is not
operating, such as while loading or unloading a vehicle. This typically uses DCFC at speeds
between 50 and 350 kW.
• En route charging: high speed charging during normal operations, ranging from speeds of
150 kW to 1 MW or more.
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MHDV BEV Charging Paradigm
Charging Levels:
L2 (6.6-19.2 kW)
DCFC (50-150 kW)
A
¦BOH
Time-Sensitive
Public
Charging Levels:
L2 (6.6-19.2 kW)
DCFC (50-150 kW)
Opportunity
Semipublic
Charging Levels: /
L2 (6.6-19.2 kW) /
~7
f \
Depot
\ Time-Insensitive
\ Private
Figure 16. MHD-BEV charging paradigm. Source. Muratori and Boriaug,280 inspired from National Research Council.28'
Emerging technologies may also offer charging
solutions beyond charging stations. In general,
these technologies are in early phases, with more
research and development needed to become
competitive. Electrified road technologies,
including dynamic wireless power transfer
(DWPT) and overhead catenary charging, present
opportunities for MHDVs to charge while being
driven or during brief stops. DWPT uses a magnetic
field to charge BEVs while traveling, without the
need for wires or cables.282 Federal- and state-
funded research is underway to develop and test
DWPT technologies.283 284 Overhead catenary
charging supplies power to a vehicle via an
overhead wire constructed over a roadway.
Multiple pilot projects of this technology have
taken place in the United States and Europe,
though more research is needed to assess cost
and feasibility.285 Battery swapping is an
additional potential solution which allows MHD-
BEVs to rapidly replace a depleted battery with a
charged one, relieving the driver of the need to
stop and recharge the battery. Multiple
demonstrations have been conducted in China,
and U.S.-based companies are developing
battery-swapping technologies.286'287 288 Finally,
mobile fuel cells may offer a solution in remote
and infrastructure-limited locations to supply
portable power using hydrogen fuel cell
technologies, which can generate electricity to
charge BEVs. This technology has been trialed in
the United States through funding by the U.S.
Department of Defense.289
BEV Charging Infrastructure Strategies
Charging infrastructure deployment presents both
challenges—including long deployment times,
station accessibility, and information barriers—
and opportunities, such as managed charging,
which can reduce charging costs and provide
benefits to the grid. Coordinated actions between
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private actors and across all levels of government
will be needed to address barriers and ensure
continued expansion of the BEV charging network.
The following are strategic priorities for BEV
charging infrastructure:
Reducing long deployment timelines will be a key
need to support continued BEV adoption. Early-
market estimates of BEV infrastructure
deployments range between 6 months for stations
to 4 years or more depending on grid upgrade
requirements.290'291 292 Reasons for delays include
challenges with local permitting processes, delays
in receiving equipment, staffing shortages, site
design changes, and more. Some fleets have
reported that utilities and local agencies lack
appropriate processes for handling their requests;
in other cases, fleets themselves have faced
challenges in navigating the process and
determining their own charging needs.293 The need
for grid upgrades is a frequently cited reason for
delays, which may be accompanied by complex
processes and the need for back-ordered
equipment such as distribution transformers.294
Higher-capacity stations are more likely to require
upgrades or additions to electrical infrastructure,
such as feeder breakers, transformers, and
substations..295 These upgrades may substantially
delay charging station deployment and impose
high costs for fleets. Strategies to reduce
deployment timelines include streamlining and
standardizing permitting processes, modernizing
regulatory frameworks to enable utilities to plan
for charging station deployments, and improving
forecasting data and tools used in grid planning.
Addressing information asymmetries and
coordination challenges are a key contributor to
deployment timelines. The charging deployment
process today is a complex multistep process and
involves collaboration between fleets, utilities, site
owners, electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE)
providers, and regulatory agencies.296 297 Fleets
must assess their charging needs when making
requests to their electric utility, including the
number and speed of the chargers they order,
their requested capacity, estimated utilization
patterns, and their anticipated flexibility to
participate in programs such as off-peak
charging and managed charging. Site owners are
also major players in this decision; as fleets often
rent spaces for depots, the site owner may take
long-term responsibility for the charging
installation.298 Utilities must assess average and
peak loads for the depot, load variability, impacts
on grid resiliency, and needed upgrades to grid
infrastructure. Finally, depending on the project,
state and federal regulatory agencies may be
involved through incentive or grant programs or in
station approval processes. Tools and guidance
are needed to facilitate information sharing and
best practices across all parties.
Ensuring adequate station utilization is another
consideration, particularly for regional stations.
Depot and opportunity charging investments will
be undertaken by private actors such as fleets,
port terminals, and distribution centers, typically
occurring at the time when new BEVs are
purchased. Other business models such as
independently operated stations and charging-
as-a-service providers—which provide access to
chargers for fleets with minimal up-front
investment—may also play a role in supplying
regional charging. High levels of utilization are
needed to defray up-front costs and ensure
competitive rates for customers.299 300 Careful
sequencing of stations is needed to match station
deployment with MHD-BEV demands.
Ensuring station accessibility for small fleets—
particularly for depot charging—is another key
need. Depot charging enables low-power
charging, which provides benefits to fleets such as
reduced charging costs, reduced battery
degradation, and the ability to participate in
managed charging programs that may provide
additional revenue streams. However, many small
fleets face barriers such as high up-front costs of
obtaining equipment and installing stations, a lack
of resources and expertise when interacting with
utilities, difficulties navigating various federal and
state funding opportunities, or lack of a
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permanent depot or ability to install charging
infrastructure entirely.301 Given the critical role that
small fleets play in the U.S. trucking industry (44% of
all on-road vehicles operate in fleets of 10 vehicles or
less), special efforts are needed to ensure access to
overnight depot charging for these fleets.
Managed charging and VGI can help address
many of the core challenges surrounding
charging station site energization, including
reducing infrastructure installation costs (by
reducing the amount of needed capacity),
reducing energy costs (by shifting demand to off-
peak times), and providing flexibility to utilities.
These systems are of particular interest for MHD-
BEVs with flexible charging schedules and long
periods of downtime, such as school buses and
local freight operations. See "Managed BEV
Charging Can Provide Many Benefits for Fleets and
Utilities" for a full description of benefits.
Innovative charging solutions, such as microgrids
and co-located storage, are emerging as
mechanisms to provide BEV charging during
periods between vehicle delivery and permanent
charging station installation and as long-term BEV
charging solutions. The private sector has
recognized the need for investments in microgrids
and on-site storage to meet immediate BEV
charging demands. Recent examples include
Prologis Mobility and Performance Team - A
Maersk Company's recently completed microgrid
project in Torrance, California that provides 9 MW
of capacity and 18 MWh of storage to meet the
needs of an HD truck fleet, powered by a
combination of hydrogen and natural gas.302
Another recent example is WattEV's deployment of
a solar-powered BEV truck stop in Bakersfield,
California—the first example of a solar-powered
truck stop in the United States.303 Transit agencies
are also receiving funding to deploy renewable
microgrids to power zero-emission transit buses,
including projects in California and Maryland.304
Such solutions may provide opportunities to
charge vehicles at lower costs, reduce electricity
emissions, and enhance resiliency during grid
outages; however, long-term viability will depend
on station sizing and economics.305 Further
research and pilot deployments can evaluate the
environmental and economic benefits of
innovative charging solutions.
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Managed BEV Charging Can Provide Many Benefits for Fleets and Utilities
What Is Managed Charging?
Managed BEV charging systems use control mechanisms to optimize BEV charging in response to grid
conditions while meeting vehicle charging needs. This ultimately puts downward pressure on electricity
rates and reduces charging costs while also supporting the electricity system to improve reliability and
reduce cost of electricity for all consumers.520 Unlike traditional charging models, where BEVs begin
charging as soon as they are plugged in, managed charging systems intelligently control the charging
process including starting, stopping, and modulating charging rates responding to signals from
utilities. Bidirectional charging (in which vehicles can also be discharged to power other loads such as
buildings or inject electricity back into the grid, also called vehicle to everything [V2X]) is related to but
distinct from managed charging and can further support the grid and create additional revenue
streams for BEV users.521
Implementing managed charging techniques has many benefits for fleets and the grid, including
reducing needed infrastructure investments and grid upgrades (and associated timelines), reducing
stress on electricity systems especially valuable during extreme or emergency events increasing
asset utilization and efficiency, and more.522 523 Studies have shown that BEV managed charging can
offer substantial value along these various value streams.524'525 526
• Cost Savings: Managed charging can lower BEV charging electricity costs, furthering the BEV cost
competitiveness. At the same time, managed charging reduces the need for electricity assets and
the cost of managing them, reducing electricity costs for all.
• Enhanced Infrastructure Utilization: Efficient use of existing infrastructure defers or eliminates the
need for investments in new grid capacity, reducing costs and energization timelines.
• Grid Stability: By intelligently managing the demand for electricity, these systems help maintain
grid stability. They reduce peak demand periods, which can prevent blackouts and reduce the
strain on the grid infrastructure.
• Environmental Impact: Managed charging can align charging times with periods of high
renewable energy availability, optimizing the use of renewables and reducing emissions.
• Dynamic Load Balancing: These systems can distribute the charging load across multiple BEVs to
avoid overloading the electric grid. This ensures that the available grid capacity is used efficiently,
preventing the need for costly infrastructure upgrades.
• Integration with Distributed Energy Resource (DER) and Long Duration Energy Storage: Managed
charging can prioritize the use of renewable energy or other DERs combined with long duration
storage systems for BEV charging. By coordinating with energy storage systems and real time data
on renewable energy production, it ensures that BEVs are charged when green energy is abundant,
reducing reliance on conventional fuels.
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Approaches to implement managed charging can be utility controlled, such as demanding response
programs; using third party aggregation of grid edge assets; or employing approaches on the
customer side of the meter, such as automated load management for fleet charging. In all cases, any
desirable grid service needs to be paired with incentives to compensate customers for providing
flexibility in their charging needs.527 Guiding principles that ensure the success of managed charging
programs include the following:528
Customer centered Managed charging prioritizes user needs, such as required departure times
and charging levels
Appropriately incentivized Offers value for providing charging flexibility
Universal value Good for BEV drivers, the grid, and other electricity consumers
Seamless and interoperable Based on accepted and streamlined standards and protocols.
Integrating managed charging systems with existing grid infrastructure requires advanced technology
and seamless communication protocols. Ongoing research and development are focused on creating
interoperable systems that can work across various platforms. Effective implementation of managed
charging also requires supportive policies and regulations, including market mechanisms that
incentivize smart charging practices and support the development of necessary infrastructure. Finally,
educating consumers and other stakeholders about the benefits of managed charging is crucial for
widespread adoption.
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Public and Private LDV and MHDV-Accessible Hydrogen Refueling Stations
Station Accessibility: • LDV • Class 3-5 • Class 6-8
Figure 17. Public and private LDV and MHDV-accessibie hydrogen refueling stations. Additional private stations may be
deployed but not reported in AFDC data. Source: AFDC.306
4.2.4.2 Hydrogen Refueling Infrastructure
Current Status and Infrastructure Needs
As with BEVs, estimating current hydrogen
refueling station deployments is challenging. AFDC
reports a total of 101 hydrogen refueling stations in
the United States as of June 2024.307 Of these, eight
are accessible to MD vehicles (Class 3-5) and five
are accessible to HDVs (Class 6-8) (Figure 17).
However, this data likely excludes private BTF
fueling stations, such as a recently opened
hydrogen truck stop at the Port of Oakland.308 The
California Energy Commission reports an
additional 28 planned public MHDV hydrogen
stations under development in California as of
2024.309 Improved data collection in partnership
with fleets and station operators will be needed to
track station deployment more accurately.
Like BEVs, FCEVs will also have varied refueling
infrastructure needs. Depot-based refueling
models may be suitable for large fleets, with many
trucks serving local and regional operations. On
the other hand, a more traditional "gas station"
model of a regional network of publicly accessible
stations may also serve local and regional needs.
Vocations such as transit buses, longer and
multishift regional freight, and specialized
applications with high sustained power demands,
long-range requirements, and low downtime may
use FCEVs for some or all operations. A national
network of high-speed charging or refueling
stations along corridors (en route) will be needed
for long-haul operations, whether BEV or FCEV.
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Table 4. FCEV Refueling Infrastructure Requirements by Market Segment and Technology
Market Segment
Refueling Options
Operational Considerations
Local and Regional
Return-to-Base
• Private depots (larger fleets)
• Semiprivate / public-access
refueling ("gas station model")
• On-site hydrogen production
• Co-located renewables and
storage
Specialized Vehicles
and Work Trucks
Same as Local and Regional Return-to-Base
Long-Haul
• High-speed refueling network can
serve off- and on-shift needs
• National network needed
• Rural infrastructure considerations
(hydrogen
production/distribution)
Projections of future hydrogen station needs are
limited. The ICCT projects that between 7,500 and
22,000 stations could be needed by 2050 to meet
demands from long-haul trucks, depending on the
FCEV adoption rate assumed (85,000 or 250,000
vehicles). This would require a nationwide daily
hydrogen production capacity of between 3,000
and 8,000 metric tons.310 The California Energy
Commission projects that anywhere from 1 to 601
stations could be needed in California by 2030
and between 11 and 2,000 by 2035, reflecting
substantial uncertainty about future MHDV FCEV
demand in the state.311 Further research and
analysis are needed to estimate station
requirements across all MHDV market segments,
considering trade-offs with BEVs.
Today's station costs are estimated at roughly $5
million per station for transit bus stations serving
up to 25 buses per day.312 Research and
development are ongoing into future station
designs that could reduce the costs of both
station deployment and hydrogen production.
What a Hydrogen Refueling Station Looks Like: Energy
and Storage Needs
A hydrogen fueling station is a complex system
with integrated components designed to safely
produce, store, compress, cool, and dispense
hydrogen fuel. Each component plays a crucial
role in ensuring the efficient and safe operation of
the station, ultimately supporting the adoption
and use of hydrogen as a clean fuel alternative.
The main components are described here.
Hydrogen Production or Delivery
On-site hydrogen production systems may use
electrolyzers, which use electrical energy to split
water into hydrogen and oxygen. Electrolyzers can
be based on proton exchange membrane,
alkaline, or solid oxide technology. Electrolysis is a
method of hydrogen production with zero end
point emissions, although emissions may be
generated upstream through the electricity
production process.313 More research is needed on
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the cost-effectiveness of co-locating hydrogen
production via electrolysis with on-site renewables
and storage. Alternatively, hydrogen can be
produced via thermal conversion processes such
as steam methane reformers, which produce
hydrogen through a reaction between methane
and steam.314 Carbon capture and storage is
needed to reduce the CO2 emissions generated
from this process.
If hydrogen is not produced on-site, it can be
delivered today through compressed gas trucks,
which transport hydrogen gas at high pressures
(typically 200-500 bar), or through cryogenic
liquid hydrogen trucks, which deliver hydrogen in
liquid form, stored at cryogenic temperatures
(-253°C). In the future, pipelines may also deliver
hydrogen in gaseous form. Reducing hydrogen
delivery costs is a key priority for lowering the total
levelized cost of dispensed hydrogen.315
Overview of Hydrogen Refueling Station Components
tigure 18. Overview of hydrogen refueling station components. Source: HFTO
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Storage Tanks
After hydrogen is produced, it must be stored on-
site at the station. Hydrogen storage is a
multifaceted challenge involving various methods,
each with its own advantages and limitations.
Compressed gas hydrogen storage and liquid
hydrogen storage are well-established and widely
used, while solid-state and chemical storage offer
promising alternatives with unique benefits. Large-
scale geological storage provides a solution for
bulk hydrogen storage. In compressed gas
hydrogen storage, hydrogen is stored in high-
pressure cylinders made from materials like steel
or carbon fiber composites. Liquid hydrogen
storage involves storing hydrogen in its liquid form,
which requires maintaining the hydrogen at
cryogenic temperatures. This method is used to
increase the density of hydrogen for applications
where high storage efficiency is crucial.316'3,7 The
choice of storage method depends on the specific
application, required storage capacity, safety
considerations, and economic factors. Robust
safety systems are essential across all storage
technologies to ensure the safe and efficient use
of hydrogen as an energy carrier. HFTO has set
near-term research efforts and targets to improve
current storage technologies, reduce costs and
leakage, and improve safety.318
Hydrogen Compressors, Pumps, and
Fuel Dispensers
Hydrogen compressors and cryopumps compress
hydrogen to the necessary pressures for
dispensing to vehicles. These include various
technologies, such as diaphragm compressors,
reciprocating piston compressors, and
cryopumps.319 320 Precooling units are also used to
cool compressed hydrogen gas before dispensing
to compensate for the heat of compression during
fueling.321 Fuel dispensers deliver hydrogen to
vehicles. They include equipment to ensure
secure, leak-free connections between vehicles
and tanks, metering systems to measure the
amount of hydrogen dispensed, hoses,
breakaways, and nozzles.322 Hydrogen-powered
MHDVs can refuel rapidly—at speeds of up to 10-15
minutes. Research on high-speed hydrogen
dispensing is ongoing to enable lower cost and
faster refuel times similar to diesel, with an
ultimate target of 10 kg per minute.323
Safety Systems
Hydrogen safety systems are an integrated set of
technologies and protocols designed to detect,
prevent, and respond to potential hazards
associated with hydrogen use. These will be
essential for vehicle infrastructure associated with
hydrogen refueling, service, maintenance, and
inspection. Key components include advanced
leak detection sensors, automatic shutoff valves,
effective ventilation systems, flare stacks, pressure
relief devices, fire suppression systems,
emergency shutdown mechanisms, explosion-
proof equipment, grounding and bonding
measures, comprehensive safety protocols, and
robust monitoring and control systems.324'325 These
components work together to ensure the safe
operation of hydrogen fueling stations and related
facilities.
DOE funds research and development efforts
aimed at improving all aspects of hydrogen
fueling stations. With continued research and
demonstrations, deployment of safe, reliable, and
high-speed hydrogen dispensing stations can be
achieved to meet regional and long-haul MHDV
needs.
Hydrogen Refueling Infrastructure Strategies
While BEVs have been the targets of early energy
infrastructure deployment efforts, FCEVs will also
require a buildout of hydrogen refueling stations
both at regional levels and along corridors. Near-
term strategies include scaling and reducing the
cost of clean hydrogen production and
distribution, continuing research, demonstrating
station technologies—including compression,
storage, and dispensing—and investing in
strategic station deployments.
Hydrogen production and distribution. Clean and
cost-effective hydrogen production and delivery
mechanisms are essential for FCEV success. While
for electricity, production and distribution
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infrastructure is already well characterized,
hydrogen faces the added challenge of the need
to develop distribution systems from the ground
up. Clean hydrogen can be produced on-site or at
central plants through several pathways, including
electrolysis powered by renewables, steam
methane reforming with carbon capture and
storage, and others. Delivery mechanisms may
include compressed or liquid hydrogen truck
transportation, gaseous delivery through pipelines,
transportation through hydrogen carriers such as
NH3 and methanol, or on-site delivery
mechanisms. DOE has set ambitious near- and
long-term milestones for the levelized cost of
clean hydrogen production, including a target of
$2/kg for production of clean hydrogen by
electrolysis by 2026 and $l/kg by 2031 and a
levelized cost target of $7/kg in the 2024-2028
timeframe and $4/kg in the 2029-2036 timeframe,
inclusive of production, delivery, and dispensing.326
These targets are consistent with conditions for
overall FCEV cost competitiveness in regional and
long-haul applications.327 328
Station Research and Development Needs. While
LDV hydrogen stations have been demonstrated,
challenges remain for cost-effective station
design. Research is needed into advanced off-
board storage technologies to reduce costs and
minimize losses, high-speed hydrogen dispensing
at high pressures, and reduced cost and improved
reliability of compression and dispensing
technology. This research can enable lower-cost,
more reliable hydrogen stations in the future.
HFTO's Multi-Year Program Plan describes this
research agenda and technology-specific targets
in further detail.329 Critical development efforts and
support will continue to be required in efficient and
safe hydrogen storage spanning a wide range of
disciplines, from materials science to systems
engineering, and requires a coordinated effort to
address technical, economic, and safety
challenges. These include:
1) Materials development, including high-
strength materials that can withstand high
pressures, low temperatures, and hydrogen
embrittlementwithout degrading overtime;
lightweight composites to reduce the weight of
storage tanks, which is particularly important
for transportation applications, liquid carriers,
and hydrides; and adsorbents that can store
hydrogen at lower pressures and moderate
temperatures with higher densities.
2) Storage technologies, including improving
the safety, durability, and cost-effectiveness
of high-pressure hydrogen storage systems,
advancing cryogenic storage technologies
such as liquid hydrogen and subcooied liquid
hydrogen to minimize boil-off losses and
improve insulation techniques, developing
and optimizing cryo-compressed hydrogen
storage systems that combine the benefits of
both cryogenic and high-pressure storage,
and exploring innovative solid-state hydrogen
storage concepts that can achieve high
densities at ambient temperatures and
pressures.
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3) Compatibility and standardization,
establishing standards and protocols for
hydrogen storage and dispensing (high-flow
hydrogen fueling) systems to ensure
compatibility and interoperability across
different applications and industries.
4) Safety and risk management, including
improving hydrogen leak detection technologies,
safety protocols, and materials testing.
5) Efficiency and cost reduction, including
reducing the energy requirements for
hydrogen compression, liquefaction, and
storage and innovating manufacturing
processes to lower the production costs of
storage tanks and related infrastructure.
6) Environmental impact, including conducting life
cycle analyses to assess the environmental
impact of different hydrogen storage
technologies and researching sustainable
materials and processes for hydrogen storage
systems to minimize environmental impact and
enhance recyclability.
Aligning station refueling capacities with MHDV
needs. Analysis by the U.S. Council for Automotive
Research has identified gaps in the development of
hydrogen refueling stations to meet MD needs. Many
of today's LD stations do not support dispensing for
vehicles with greater than 10 kg of onboard storage
capacity, while MDs may have storage capacities of
10 to 35 kg. Conversely, HD stations may support
refueling for higher storage capacities but are
inaccessible to MDs.330 Additional research,
standards development, and station deployments
and upgrades are needed to address this gap.
Station utilization and siting. Regional FCEV station
deployment will require similar considerations as BEVs
surrounding timing and utilization. For centrally
supplied stations, utilization rates (defined as the ratio
of dispensed hydrogen to station capacity) of 80% or
greater and dispensing volumes of 8 metric tons per
day or more will be needed to reach costs of below
$7/kg by 2030. On-site production may result in more
favorable economics and lower required utilization
rates—assuming that production costs of $1.5/kg or
less can be achieved.331 These economies of scale
mean that regional stations must be co-located with
high levels of hydrogen production and vehicle
deployment to be competitive—beginning with
Clean Hydrogen Hubs.
The Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs Program
The Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs Program was
established by BIL, which sets aside $8 billion for
the establishment of hydrogen hubs across the
United States. These hubs, which are currently
being established by the Office of Clean Energy
Demonstrations (OCED) in DOE, are aimed at
establishing regional hydrogen production
centers, connective infrastructure, and end-use
demands. Figure 19 shows a map of hubs selected
for award negotiations through this program. As of
July 2024, three of the seven selected hubs have
been awarded:
• The Appalachian Hydrogen Hub, which will
receive up to $925 million in federal
investment and has a goal of producing over
1,500 metric tons of clean hydrogen per day.
• The California Hydrogen Hub, which will
receive up to $1.2 billion in federal investment
and aims to power 5,000 or more fuel cell
electric trucks and 1,000 or more fuel cell
electric buses, cargo-handling equipment at
three large ports, one large marine vessel,
and turbines and stationary fuel cells. In
addition, this hub plans to deploy 60 HD
fueling stations.
• The Pacific Northwest Hydrogen Hub, which
will receive up to $1 billion in federal
investment and plans to produce at least 335
metric tons of clean hydrogen per day.
Along with other criteria outlined in the National
Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy (discussed
in the next section), hydrogen hubs should be
prioritized when making near-term station
deployment decisions.
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Map of Planned Regional Hydrogen Hubs
Proposed H2 Facility
0 Selected H2Hubs
Heartland
Hydrogen Hub
Heartland Hub (HH2H)
Pacific Northwest
Hydrogen Hub
PNW H2
Midwest °9
Hydrogen Hub
California
Hydrogen Hub
Alliance for Renewable Clean
Hydrogen Energy Systems
(ARCHES)
Midwest Alliance for Clean
Hydrogen (MachH2)
Appalachian
Hydrogen Hub
Appalachian Regional Clean
Hydrogen Hub (ARCH2)
Gulf Coast
Hydrogen Hub
HyVelocity H2Hub
Figure 19. Map of planned regional hydrogen hubs. Source: OCED.332
4.2.4.3 Corridor Charging and Refueling
Current Status arid Infrastructure Needs
Establishing a national network of high-speed
corridor charging/refueling stations is essential to
enable the adoption of long-haul ZEVs. Today, there
is substantial uncertainty about long-haul ZEV
technologies, which are still in the early stages of
development. Both BEVs and FCEVs may play a role
in the Long-Haul market segment, but further
demonstrations are needed to understand the
trade-offs between technologies and their feasibility
under real-world conditions.
Not all infrastructure needs to be deployed at once.
Focusing early deployments in key freight hubs and
corridors where ZEVs are likely to have the greatest
market penetration avoids issues of stranded assets
and underutilization of stations.333 334-335 Several
studies have assessed near-term charging network
needs for long-haul BEVs. ICCT finds that to provide
corridor charging every 50 miles along NHFN, 844
charging stations of up to 6-MW capacity each
would be needed in 2030, which could
accommodate 85% of long-haul needs.336 A study
by Atlas Public Policy estimates that 4,151 to 5,785
charging ports would be needed for minimum and
full build-out of the NHFN, at speeds of 2 MW.33X j
Analysis remains limited for FCEVs; in the previously
referenced study, ICCT estimates that between 7,500
and 22,000 hydrogen refueling stations could be
needed by 2050 to meet long-haul needs, but they
do not estimate a minimum viable network.
Given substantial market uncertainty and the need
for strategic investments, the federal government
has released the National Zero-Emission Freight
Corridor Strategy ("Corridor Strategy")338 to guide
phased investments in corridor charging.
i Charging stations may have multiple ports. ICCT (Ragon et al,
2023) also estimates that 9,500 ultrafast [2-MW] chargers will
be needed in 2030.
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The National Zero-Emission Freight
Corridor Strategy
While depot and opportunity-charging decisions
are being made by fleets in alignment with
their electrification timelines, early-market
deployments of publicly accessible local, regional,
and corridor en route charging and refueling
stations will be determined by a combination
of government incentive structures and private
investments. For such deployments, alignment
on timing of infrastructure supply with ZEV
adoption is essential.
The Corridor Strategy provides a framework for
prioritizing corridor infrastructure deployments.
The strategy is laid out in four phases (Figure 20).
• Phase 1 of the strategy (covering 2024
through 2027) prioritizes establishing corridor
infrastructure in key freight hubs covering
12,000 miles (23%) of the NHFN. This
infrastructure can also satisfy regional
charging/refueling needs.
• Phase 2 (covering 2027 to 2030) prioritizes
connections between freight hubs, covering
19,000 miles and 36% of the NHFN. Criteria for
designating Phase 1 and 2 hubs and corridors
include freight volumes, port and intermodal
facility locations, ZEV deployments,
environmental burdens, and the presence of
state incentives.
• Phase 3 (2030 to 2035) expands the charging
network, covering 37,000 miles, or 72% of
the NHFN.
• Finally, Phase 4 (2035 to 2040) completes the
national network, covering 49,000 miles, or
94% of the NHFN, aligned with 100% nationwide
ZEV sales targets by 2040.
The MHDV Plan recommends that the Corridor
Strategy criteria be adopted by federal agencies
when making funding decisions for corridor
infrastructure. To overcome early-market barriers
such as high capital costs and low utilization, this
plan further recommends deploying ZEV corridor
infrastructure in priority hubs and corridors, as
well as near-term demonstrations of corridor
charging/refueling effectiveness to build market
confidence in long-haul ZEVs.
Additional Corridor Strategy Areas
In addition to supporting sequenced deployment
of charging/refueling networks, demonstrating
high-speed charging infrastructure along
corridors and considering the need for standards
for charging/refueling speed are necessary to
promote industry investment. Fuel-specific factors
such as grid impacts for high-speed charging and
the development of hydrogen production and
distribution networks must also be considered for
BEVs and FCEVs, respectively.
Corridor demonstrations. While BEVs and FCEVs
have been demonstrated and deployed in local
and regional applications, demonstrations are still
needed for long-haul vehicles and infrastructure,
which will enable the collection of critical data on
technology development needs and operational
suitability. Demonstrations of vehicle technologies
and infrastructure are ongoing through the
SuperTruck 3 Initiative, including for both FCEVs
and BEVs.
En route charging/refueling speed. Because en
route charging/refueling takes place when the
vehicle would otherwise be operating, speed is
important to minimize disruptions to delivery
schedules. For BEVs, studies suggest that charging
speeds ranging between 1 and 2 MW will be
necessary to remain within 5% to 10% of operating
margins for HD fleets.339 The Megawatt Charging
System (MCS), which defines an industry standard
to enable charging at up to 3,000 amps and 1,250
volts (up to 3.75 MW), is under development,340
with successful demonstrations of prototype
technologies in 2020 and final standards expected
in 2024.341 For hydrogen-powered vehicles
(including FCEVs and hydrogen ICE), standards for
fast hydrogen fueling are also under development.
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
HFTO has set hydrogen fill rate targets of 8 kg per
minute by 2030 and an ultimate target of 10 kg per
minute;342 the latter has been demonstrated in
experimental conditions by NREL for gaseous
hydrogen refueling.343 Rapid liquid hydrogen
refueling has been demonstrated by industry.344
Further research and standards development are
needed to finalize fast hydrogen fueling standards.
Overview of the National Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy
Phased Infrastructure Deployment Timeline.
PHASE 1:
ESTABLISH HUBS
Establish priority
hubs based on
freight volumes
2024-2027
PHASE 2:
CONNECT HUBS
Connect hubs
along critical
freight corridors
r
PHASE 3:
EXPAND CORRIDORS
Expand corridor
connections,
initiating
network
development.
r
PHASE 4:
COMPLETE NETWORK
2027-2030
2030-2035
Achieve
national
network by
linking regional
corridors for
ubiquitous
2035-2040
~
Figure 20. Overview of the National Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy phased infrastructure deployment timeline.
Source: The U.S. National Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy.345
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4.2.4.4 Near- Term Actions
Actions to deploy charging/refueling infrastructure
will require collaboration among private actors
and across all levels of government. These include
the following:
Support Cost-Competitive Charging/Refueling
Prices
BEV-Focused Actions
Action 1: Support research, demonstration, and
deployment on managed charging and VGI. More
research and demonstrations are needed to
identify how managed charging can benefit
different types of MHDV fleets and vocations, to
advance standards and best practices for
implementation, and to enable widespread
deployment at scale. Collaboration between
private, local, state, and federal actors can
accomplish the following:
• Develop standards and communication
protocols for managed charging and VGI.
Similar to the application of smart charge
management network architecture for LD
vehicle charging required in the National
Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Standards and
Requirements, communication protocols
used as the basis for the Combined Charging
System are planned for within the MCS.346
Vehicle and charger manufacturer
implementation of the smart charging in the
MCS use case will be essential for safely and
securely managing demand at MHDV
charging locations. Private actors and the
federal government can continue research
collaborations to develop these standards.
• Demonstrate the benefits of managed
charging and VGI. Early demonstrations of
VGI in ESBs have shown that VGI can provide
substantial revenue streams for school
districts and provide resiliency benefits to
utilities.347 However, more research is needed
in collaboration between fleets, utilities, and
state and federal governments to identify
benefits in other MHDV applications and to
assess the values provided by BEV managed
charging along the entire electricity system.
The SuperTruck Charge program will provide
$72 million in funding to demonstrate VGI and
managed charging solutions at depots near
key ports and logistics centers and at truck
stops along travel corridors. The Joint Office of
Energy and Transportation (Joint Office) will
also support investments in managed
charging implementation and standards
development through the Communities
Taking Charge Accelerator.
• Share learnings and support decision-
making to enable widespread adoption.
Technical assistance, best practices, and
learnings from real-world demonstrations
can be shared among private and
government actors.
Action 2. Support manufacturing scale-up for
chargers and electrical equipment (private actors
and federal government). Manufacturing scale-up
for equipment such as chargers and transformers
can ensure that these components are affordable
and available on a timely basis. The Qualifying
Advanced Energy Project Credit (Provision 48C) of
the IRA provides tax credits for U.S. manufacturing
projects supporting these and other components of
a clean energy economy. To date. 35 projects across
20 states—including several in grid component
manufacturing—have received support. Since 2021,
companies in the United States have announced
production capability of at least 60.000 fast chargers
per year.
FCEV-Focused Actions
Action 7: Support low-cost clean hydrogen
production and scale-up. Several currently funded
federal programs support clean hydrogen
production and scale-up in line with stated
hydrogen cost milestones. In addition to the
previously discussed Regional Clean Hydrogen
Hubs Program, other incentive mechanisms
include tax credits enacted by the IRA for
hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. Examples
include the Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit
(45V) (defined as hydrogen produced with a well-
to-gate CI of <4 kg carbon dioxide equivalent/kg
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hydrogen)348 and the 30C Alternative Fuel Vehicle
Refueling Property Credit. Additional programs
funded by HFTO aim to advance manufacturing
technologies of electrolyzers, reduce cost of
electrolysis at scale, and reduce the cost of fueling
components. These activities are further discussed
in the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and
Roadmap and Pathways to Commercial Liftoff.
Clean Hydrogen reports.
Action 2: Support hydrogen station research and
development priorities. HFTO lays out a detailed
research agenda for hydrogen refueling stations
in its Multi-Year Program Plan. Continued support
and collaboration between DOE and private actors
such as industry and research institutions can
enable advancements in hydrogen station design
and cost reductions.
Reduce Barriers and Streamline Processes for
Charging Infrastructure Deployment
BEV-Focused Actions
Action V. Align and streamline regulatory
frameworks for station permitting and promote
standardization. Actions by state, local, and
federal governments can streamline and improve
BEV charging infrastructure permitting processes,
a key contributor to today's long lead times.
• At the state level, legislative efforts can be
adopted in the model of California's Assembly
Bills (AB) 1236 and 970 and Colorado's HB24-
1173. which aim to streamline local charging
infrastructure permitting and zoning
processes.
• Local efforts can include adopting
streamlined permitting processes and
planning codes consistent with state
legislation.
• Federal leadership, guidance, and technical
support are also needed. Federal actions
include:
o Providing streamlined permitting
models and templates for local
municipalities. Federally developed
templates and guidebooks can assist
municipalities in updating their planning
codes and permitting processes to
incorporate BEV infrastructure and
promote standardization across
jurisdictions. State actions can serve as
models—for example, California, New
York, and New Jersey have all developed
guidance for local municipalities on
developing permitting best practices for
EVSE.349
o Technical support and assistance
through existing federal programs can
provide direct assistance to local
communities as they develop best
practices. Examples of recently launched
programs include DOE's Charging Smart
program, a pilot project that provides
assistance to local governments on how
to streamline BEV charging deployment,
and the i2X Innovative Queue
Management Solutions (iQMS) program,
which provides funding to utilities to
develop solutions for managing BEV
charging and renewable interconnection
and energization requests.
Action 2: Modernize utility regulatory frameworks
and improve planning tools. These actions can
enable utilities to make proactive grid-planning
investments, which are crucial to accelerating
MHDV site energization timelines and avoiding
long backlogs for grid infrastructure upgrades.
• Efforts by utilities, civic organizations, and
state and local governments can help to
develop new approaches to electric grid
planning that include transportation end-use
demands.
• Federal efforts include providing improved
tools and analysis to assist utilities in planning
for the number of BEVs in their jurisdiction;
load forecasting, including managed
charging and other VGI approaches across
different fleet sizes and vocations; and the
resulting upgrades to generation,
transmission, and distribution infrastructure.
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Action 3: Facilitate collaboration and information
sharing across utilities and fleets. Fleets, utilities,
and regulatory agencies have access to data and
knowledge that may be useful to other parties. The
federal government and national laboratories can
promote collaboration across these parties by
hosting summits and workshops to bring together
utilities and fleets and other stakeholders and
share insights and lessons learned from early
experiences. Data-sharing platforms to allow
fleets to anonymously upload operational and
charging information would also be useful for
utilities in developing forecasting tools. This MHDV
Plan establishes a near-term milestone of hosting
a charging-infrastructure stakeholder workshop
by 2026 to facilitate collaboration across
stakeholders.
Action 4: Develop educational resources, tools,
and best practices for fleets. Many fleets,
particularly smaller operations, may face
challenges with preparing requests for utilities and
navigating local permitting processes. Tools are
needed to help prepare fleets to make their
charging requests, including assessing their
needed capacity, the number of chargers per
vehicle, and potential charging strategies.
Additional assessment tools could consider the
impacts of co-located storage and renewable
generation resources on their requests and assist
fleets in optimizing the economics of their depots.
DOE, the Joint Office, and national laboratories are
well-situated to provide such tools. The EVI-X suite
developed by DOE, the state of California, and NREL
is one example of resources developed for LD BEVs
that could be extended for MHDVs. The HEVI-LOAD
tool developed by Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory and the California Energy Commission
is another example of an MHDV-specific
assessment tool. These tools can also be used by
utilities to assist in grid-planning efforts.
Integrating electricity and transportation system plans and investments is
critical to build a national network of decarbonized fueling infrastructure.
Integrating planning and investment spanning the transportation and electricity systems is essential to
accelerating the cost effective build out of robust fueling infrastructures across the United States. The
increasing demand for electricity, directly for EVs and indirectly to produce low carbon fuels, requires a
commensurate response that accelerates the accommodation of these new end uses into electricity
policy, utility regulation, and the deployment of needed energy infrastructure.
A refreshed approach to electric grid planning that extends the utility regulatory compact to also include
the transportation end uses critical for meeting climate change goals will help ensure the timely provision
of reliable, safe, affordable, and resilient electric services. Stakeholders will need to account for new
transportation loads, advanced grid management technologies, and new business models in demand
forecasts and operating practices. These demand forecasts could extend the time and geography
included in their capital infrastructure plans beyond those located in their service territory to reflect and
support the achievement of regional or national transportation goals. Importantly, collaboration will
facilitate public and private financing to ensure that new decarbonized fuels and electricity are affordable
for drivers, fleets, and utility customers alike.
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The federal government's longstanding research and development efforts with private industry to
advance grid technology have commercialized to enable mass customer adoption of DERs operating in
smarter and increasingly flexible utility systems. Deployment programs in the Infrastructure Investment
and Jobs Act (lIJA) and incentives enabled by the IRA are accelerating this modernization. Across the
country, while these deployments help lav the foundations for transportation decarbonization, decision
making among the private sector, civic organizations, and the public sector at local, state, and federal
levels that guide electric system regulation, planning, and operation must be harmonized to construct
fuel networks benefitting all Americans.
In IIJ A, Congress recognized the importance of federal leadership in these cross sectoral planning needs
in establishing the Joint Officek and acknowledged the importance of coordinated multistate freight
corridor compacts' to develop and finance infrastructure while considering the needs of a broad range of
stakeholders. IIJA also established a new planning standard for transportation electrification"1 under the
Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act, enabling initial utility actions to expand rates, charging
infrastructure, and investment and to recover associated costs to support EVs. Although these provisions
provide initial resources, their distinct frameworks and scopes underscore the need for integrated
transportation and energy planning and investment across the United States to respond to customers'
growing calls to timely construct their contributions toward a broader, nationwide decarbonized fueling
infrastructure network that is economical and resilient.
In implementing the action plans, utilities and transportation planners working with their regulatory
authorities and public and private sector entities, and in coordination with DOE and DOT should
incorporate local, regional, and national multimodal mobility goals into energy infrastructure plans by:
• Extending planning horizons. Utilities and states can continue to implement EV charging programs,
specifically considering more recent technology assessments and the associated energy demanded
by long term decarbonization goals, thereby identifying cost effective electricity system investments
that support timely service to and energization of customers.
k 23 U.S. Code S151 established the Joint Office to facilitate collaboration between the DOE and the DOT to study, plan, coordinate, and
implement zero-emission transportation and related infrastructure. Among other responsibilities, the Joint Office is charged with
technical assistance related to the deployment, operation, and maintenance of EVSE and hydrogen fueling infrastructure; vehicle-to-
grid integration; data sharing to inform the network build out of EVSE and hydrogen fueling infrastructure; studying national and
regional needs to support the distribution of grants; and electric infrastructure and utility accommodation planning in transportation
rights-of-way; studying, planning, and funding for high-voltage distributed current infrastructure in the rights-of way of the Interstate
System and for constructing high-voltage and or medium-voltage transmission pilots in the rights-of-way of the Interstate System;
among other activities.
1 Multi-state freight corridor planning, authorized under 49 U.S.C. S 70204 recognizes the right of states, cities, regional planning
organizations, Tribes, and local public authorities (including port authorities) that are regionally linked with an interest in a specific
nationally or regionally significant multi-state freight corridor to enter into multi-state compacts to promote the improved mobility of
goods. These compacts allow for projects along corridors that benefit multiple states to assemble rights-of-way and perform capital
improvements and employ a variety of financing tools to build projects, including with support of DOT.
m 16 U.S.C. S 2621 amended PURPA to establish a requirement wherein each state's utility ratemaking authority, electric utilities, and
nonregulated electric utilities shall consider measures to promote greater transportation electrification. The standard describes
measures that states and utilities could pursue, including the establishment of rates that promote affordable and equitable options
for light-, medium-, and heavy-duty EV charging; improving the customer experience including by reducing charge times;
accelerating third-party investments; and appropriately recovering the marginal costs of delivering electricity to EVs and charging.
The provision allows states with existing EV rate standards to be exempt from the standard, and it permits states that decline to
implement the standard to publish a statement of reasons.
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• Expanding end use forecasts. This allows utilities to plan for and serve anticipated electricity
demand from non road transportation end uses, including maritime, rail, and aviation, as well as
associated efficiency measures.
• Contributing to the national network. State departments of transportation and utilities can
coordinate to better understand and serve the electricity demand associated with inter utility,
interstate, interregional transportation to deploy electricity delivery infrastructure that meets the
needs of regional and national interest mobility corridors timely and cost-effectively.
• Improving efficiency of capital investments. Utility and transportation planners can seek
information from stakeholders to understand needs, priorities, and issues to maximally leverage
private sector financing and other means to reduce the marginal costs of delivering electricity to
transportation end uses.
Support Deployment of Local, Regional, and National Charging/Refueling Networks
BEV and FCEV-Focused Actions
Action 1: Provide continued incentives for charging/refueling infrastructure deployment. Incentives at both
state and federal levels can help defray up-front costs of infrastructure investments.
• State-level incentives, such as those provided by the California Clean Transportation Program, can
support charging/fueling infrastructure deployment. Incentives may also be offered by utilities and
local governments (see the AFDC for a list of state and local incentives).
• At the federal level, existing ZEV adoption grant programs such as EPA's Clean School Bus Program
and the Low or No Emission Grant Program provide funding for school and transit bus purchases and
charging infrastructure installations. The National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure fNEVl) Program
provides $5 billion to deploy EV charging infrastructure (though the focus thus far has been on LDVs).
Finally, the Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Discretionary Grant Program provides $2.5 billion to
deploy EV charging infrastructure and hydrogen, propane, and natural gas fueling infrastructure in
communities along designated Alternative Fuel Corridors and in other publicly accessible
locations. In January 2024, DOT announced funding for seven projects totaling $249 million that have
an HD vehicle focus under the CFI program. For example, the New Mexico Department of
Transportation will receive $63.8 million to build two BEV charging centers for MHD commercial BEVs
traveling along Interstate 10, which will serve as the nation's first network of high-powered charging
centers connecting HD trucks from San Pedro ports in Southern California to El Paso, Texas. These and
similar programs should continue to support charging infrastructure installations and consider the
potentially greater costs associated with grid upgrades for large projects. The following are gaps in
current federal incentive programs:
o Support for small fleets: Federal incentive programs that target small fleets explicitly through
financing and grant programs could help support access to depot charging, shared depots, and
charging as a service.350
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o Support for private infrastructure: Currently authorized programs support only infrastructure at
public locations and for public fleets. Private infrastructure funding could enable continued support
for depot charging/refueling infrastructure, and MHDV fleet expansion.
Action 2: Support infrastructure demonstrations and standards development for high-speed MHDV
charging/refueling stations.
• Research partnerships between federal and private actors are ongoing through programs such as
SuperTruck 3 to finalize the MCS and demonstrate MW+ charging systems. Similarly, ongoing
research funded by DOE in partnership with private institutions is continuing for standards
development for high-speed hydrogen refueling under real-world conditions. In addition, DOT has
developed standards for direct current fast-charging stations receiving federal funding through the
MEVI Program. DOT is seeking public input on whether standards are needed for MHDV charging
stations receiving federal funding.
Action 3: Support sequenced deployment of MHDV charging/refueling stations. State governments and
federal agencies can adopt criteria developed through the Corridor Strategy to prioritize phased
deployment of corridor infrastructure investments.
Action 4: Explore opportunities for innovative charging solutions. Clean and innovative charging solutions such
as renewable microgrids and co-located storage have emerged as mechanisms to provide temporary and
permanent BEV charging and may also be a solution for on-site hydrogen production at hydrogen refueling
stations. State and existing federal programs can explore opportunities to further support these technologies,
which can serve dual purposes by providing solutions to infrastructure deployment delays and enhancing
station resilience. Through the SuperTruck program, DOE has released a notice of intent. SuperTruck Charge, to
fund projects relating to large-scale charging installations that use innovative approaches to alleviate potential
grid capacity challenges, such as load sharing, peak shaving, delayed charging, bidirectional power flow, use of
on-site DERs (e.g., battery energy storage, solar gen eration), and coordination with other on-site loads.
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4.2.5 LEGACY VEHICLES AND SUSTAINABLE
LIQUID FUELS
While with ZEV adoption the conventional MHDV fleet
will decline in size, long vehicle lifetimes suggest that
many ICEVs will remain in operation even in 2050,
representing vehicles sold between now and 2040 (if
U.S. goals of 100% ZEV sales are met by 2040). For a
scenario with 38% ZEV sales in 2030 and 97% in 2040,
Ledna et al.351 project that up to 25% of 2050 MHDV
stock could be ICEVs, demanding substantial
volumes of sustainable liquid fuels to fully
decarbonize. However, uncertainty remains
surrounding MHDV lifetimes and flows of used
vehicles between vocations in all studies aiming to
model future fleet turnover and energy demands.
Improved data collection on MHDV survival rates
and VMT schedules is needed to understand future
legacy fleet energy demands.
Fully decarbonizing the legacy fleet will require
sustainable liquid fuels, which include biofuels,
including RD and biodiesel. Repowers—conversions
from conventional vehicles to ZEVs—may also be an
option for some legacy vehicles and have been
demonstrated for ESBs.352 In addition to legacy
vehicles, across all market segments there may
be regional and operational constraints that make
ZEVs difficult to deploy. With today's technology
constraints, both BEVs and FCEVs lose performance
in colder weather.353 Furthermore, in some remote
and low-population areas of the country, needed
investments in grid infrastructure and hydrogen
production capacity to deploy ZEVs may be
economically prohibitive. Sustainable liquid fuels
may also be solutions for duty cycles with high
energy demands and minimal time to refuel (such
as long-haul team driving operations). Trade-offs
between these fuels and other technologies such
as FCEVs will depend on economic and
infrastructure considerations.
Starting in 2025 through 2027, the U.S. Treasury
Department will offer the Section 45Z Clean Fuel
Production Credit, supported under the IRA. The 45Z
credit consolidates and replaces several credits
scheduled to expire at the end of 2024 and has a
maximum value of $1 per gallon of nonaviation fuel.
Another federal policy incentive is EPA's Renewable
Fuel Standard, created under the Energy Policy Act
of 2005 and further expanded by the Energy
Independence and Security Act of 2007. The Clean
Air Act provides EPA with authority to set renewable-
fuel volume targets for calendar years after 2022 via
rulemaking, which must be set with consideration of
other factors, including the impact of renewable
fuels on the cost to consumers of transportation
and the impact of the use of renewable fuel on job
creation, price and supply of agricultural
commodities, rural economic development, and
food prices. From 2016 to 2021, DOE supported the
Co-Optimization of Fuels & Engines (Co-Optima)
initiative. Co-Optima focused on improving MHDV
truck performance by identifying sustainable new
biobased blend stocks, engine technologies, and
combustion approaches capable of reducing
environmental impacts. Co-Optima demonstrated
the ability of biobased blend stocks to cut life cycle
GHG emissions by greater than 60%, developed a
ducted fuel injection strategy that could reduce
engine-out soot production by greater than 99%,
demonstrated multimode combustion approaches
that could cut NOx emissions by greater than 90%,
and demonstrated that using lower-sooting
biobased blend stocks could reduce NOx and soot
production in diesel engines.
MHDVs fueled by sustainable liquid fuels are not
ZEVs. Criteria pollutant emissions at the tailpipe
include NOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and CO. State-funded
testing measured that NOxfrom state-of-the-art
diesel engine technology with state-of-the-art
emissions control, fueled with RD, is not statistically
different from the same engine and emissions
control setup fueled with petroleum diesel, and
NOx increases with the same setup fueled by
biodiesel.354 That study also concluded there were
no statistical differences in PM emissions in the
state-of-the-art diesel engines using biofuel or
petroleum diesel, indicating that the exhaust
aftertreatment systems effectively control PM.
Biodiesel can be blended up to 20% without
vehicle modification and reduces CO and PM
tailpipe emissions, but it results in increases in NOx
emissions.355 Further tailpipe emissions testing of
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biofuels is needed, particularly to maintain
datasets corresponding to the real-world biofuel
blends coming to market under the conditions of
new-technology diesel engines. Appendix B
provides additional information about biofuels.
4.3 Convenience and Efficiency
The Blueprint provides a framework to transition to
a net-zero GHG transportation system through
three interrelated strategies that tackle the main
drivers of passenger and freight transportation
GHG emissions: (l) convenience (distance
traveled between destinations), (2) efficiency
(energy intensity of each mile traveled), and (3)
clean (CI of the fuels). While other sections of this
MHDV Action Plan focus on the clean strategy, this
section focuses on the convenience and efficiency
strategies as they relate to MHDVs.
Improved convenience and efficiency can offer
substantial direct economic benefits and indirect
co-benefits, ranging from fuel cost savings and
lowered costs of freight movement, reduced GHG
and air pollutant emissions, improvements in
traffic, and easing of the transition toward
sustainable fuels—for example, by reducing the
level of investments needed in clean electricity
capacity. The federal government is currently
undertaking or has identified a range of
investments in convenience and efficiency.
4.3.1 STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE MHDV
CONVENIENCE
4.3.1.1 Freight Strategy Areas
Improving freight system convenience can be a
powerful tool to alleviate decarbonization
challenges, including by reducing route distances,
which may increase the number of feasible routes
for shorter-range ZEVs, and by alleviating pressure
on fuel production and infrastructure systems.
While market forces already provide strong
incentives for fleets to optimize routing and reduce
mileage where it is financially beneficial to do so,
other convenience-improving measures such as
large-scale investments in the built environment
require coordination at state, local, and federal
levels. Core freight convenience strategies include
advanced freight movement planning solutions,
including curbside demand management and
off-peak deliveries. Other strategies such as land-
use planning are further discussed in the
Convenience Plan.
Curbside demand management. Managing the
curb is an increasingly important task that can
contribute to VMT reductions from freight in both
urban and downtown rural core contexts. Curbside
demand management can help reduce the
amount of time freight vehicles search for
adequate parking to make deliveries.356 Curb
management options include dedicated
freight/commercial zones, parking spot
reservation systems, and off-peak deliveries.
Delivery lockers may also reduce curb congestion
and respond to an increase in demand for
deliveries. However, the decarbonization potential
of delivery lockers is highly context dependent.
VMT of the households to reach the lockers must
be considered to properly evaluate the emissions
reduction potential of this strategy.357
Off-peak deliveries. Truck deliveries during peak
periods can worsen traffic congestion, which can
lead to idling and add to vehicle-induced air
quality issues. Off-peak delivery programs
encourage delivery companies and receiving
businesses to shift to evening or overnight
deliveries. Off-peak deliveries can be made
through traditional assisted delivery (i.e., people in
the business available to receive delivery) or via
delivery lockers or staging areas. Curb
management can encourage off-peak deliveries
by allowing for free or lower-cost parking during
specific off-peak periods. Road usage charges
and other pricing strategies, which typically
charge drivers higher tolls or per-mile fees during
peak periods, can also encourage shippers to shift
to off-peak hours. Benefits of off-peak deliveries
include increased productivity of freight
operations, decreased truck traffic, and reduced
freight-related environmental impacts such as
reduced emissions from idling.358
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Passenger buses are currently a small share of
total MHDV travel demand, accounting for 5% of
MHDV VMT.359 Efforts to improve convenience
across personal travel modes will primarily focus
on LD vehicle travel demand management, and
sector-wide convenience and efficiency
investments may result in net increases in bus
VMT as part of an overall strategy to increase
transit ridership. Strategies such as transit-
oriented development, zoning reform, and siting
and development of location-efficient housing
can reduce the miles needed to move passengers
to their destinations and increase bus ridership.
Transit-oriented development involves supporting
mixed-use development to reduce trip distances
and improve the convenience of public
transportation. This form of development has been
shown to have high GHG emissions reduction
potential—up to 31%—through mode shifting and trip
reductions.360 The federal government—including
DOT and HUD—funds a number of programs aimed
at financing transit-oriented development and
providing guidance for local communities.
Zoning reform can help reshape the built
environment to locate residential locations closer
to jobs, businesses, and community locations.
Many zoning codes often require strict separation
of uses (e.g., residential and commercial districts),
which results in car-dependent communities and
longer distances between homes and
destinations. Improved zoning and land-use
codes—which are primarily undertaken by states
and local governments—can be used in
conjunction with transit-oriented development to
improve overall transportation system
convenience and increase transit bus ridership.361
4.3.1.3 Near- Term Actions
Actions to improve convenience will involve
collaboration among the private sector and at all
levels of government. The Convenience Action
Plan presents a detailed action agenda across the
full transportation sector. Highlighted actions
specific to MHDVs include the following:
Private sector. Private-sector-led actions include
piloting alternative delivery programs such as
delivery lockers, access point locations, and off-
peak deliveries, and supporting public-private
partnerships for transit and rail.
Local and regional governments. Local and state
governments can fund new development near
transit through DOT financing programs such as
the Transport Infrastructure Financing and
Innovation Act and modify state and local land-
use regulations to support diversified housing
options near transit. Local and regional
governments can also implement strategies such
as managed lanes.
Federal government. The federal government can
play a role by conducting research, providing
financing, and developing tools and technical
assistance. More detail on these actions is as follows:
• Fund research quantifying the benefits of
convenience investments at national scales.
While studies have evaluated Convenient
actions in local contexts, a full quantification
of their benefits at scale and comparisons
between strategies remains a crucial gap in
the literature. Several ongoing projects aim to
address this gap. The Energy Efficient Mobility
Systems-funded project National Impacts of
Community-Level Strategies to Decarbonize
and Improve Convenience of Mobility362 is
exploring the impacts of different strategies to
improve mobility convenience across
communities in the United States. This project
will estimate county-level and national-scale
impacts on energy, emissions, and travel to
inform investments and decision-making to
support transportation decarbonization. DOT
also supports research related to freight and
goods movement through two university
partnerships: the Freight Mobility Research
Institute at Florida Atlantic University and the
Center for Freight Transportation for Efficient &
Resilient Supply Chain at the University of
Tennessee, Knoxville.
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• Finance Convenient passenger and freight
projects through existing programs, such as
DOT'S Transport Infrastructure Financing and
Innovation Act to improve transit bus
infrastructure and support transit-oriented
development.
• Develop tools and provide technical
assistance for local communities, including
planning tools, guidebooks, and analysis
support for developing siting and zoning
reforms; implementing transit-oriented
development practices; and implementing
curbside management. Examples of existing
guidance include the Primer for Improved
Urban Freight Mobility and Delivery developed
by the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA), which provides best practices for
urban freight planning, and the Thriving
Communities Program, which provides
technical assistance to local communities to
facilitate the planning and development of
transportation and community revitalization
activities.
More actions and programs are described in
further detail in the Convenience Action Plan.
4.3.2 STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE MHDV EFFICIENCY
As with improving convenience, improving
transportation system efficiency may substantially
reduce the investment required to reach net-zero
GHG emissions. Efficiency improvements can
occur at three levels:
• System-level efficiency encompasses efforts
to improve efficiency across transportation
modes. Core strategies include expanding
affordable access to efficient modes for
passenger and freight movement.
• Operational efficiency involves improving
vehicle and fleet operations through
strategies such as idling and congestion
reduction, optimized route planning, and
intelligent transportation systems (ITS).
• Finally, vehicle-level efficiency involves
energy efficiency improvements at the level
of the vehicle, through the development of
advanced vehicle components and materials
and support for aftermarket efficiency
solutions such as gap reducers, truck skirts,
and low-rolling resistance tires.
4.3.2.1 System-Level Efficiency
Expanding Affordable Access to Efficient Modes
Expanding affordable access to efficient modes
can improve system-wide efficiency for both
passenger and freight movement. For passenger
movement, this includes investments in modes
such as transit buses and rail, which offer highly
energy-efficient alternatives for moving people.
For freight modes, this includes investments in rail,
maritime, and intermodal or multimodal freight.
Freight. Expanding access to efficient freight
modes involves supporting rail, maritime, and
multimodal freight to ensure that freight shippers
have access to affordable and energy-efficient
options for moving goods. Multimodal freight
involves goods movement on multiple modes of
transport, such as rail and trucks. "Intermodal
transport" refers to the transport of goods in a
single unit, such as a shipping container, for the
duration of its journey.363
Rail and maritime modes are the most energy-
efficient means of moving freight. Inland marine
shipping can move 1 ton of freight 675 miles on 1
gallon of diesel fuel, and rail can move it 472 miles
by the same amount of fuel. In contrast, trucks can
move 1 ton of freight 151 miles with 1 gallon of
diesel.364 However, past growth in freight
transportation has been primarily concentrated in
MHDVs, which grew by 8% between 2000 and 2022
on a ton-mile basis and 20% on a GHG emissions
basis, while rail and maritime transportation
demands increased more slowly or declined.365'366
Intermodal hubs or terminals are strategically
located facilities where two or more transport
modes converge to transfer goods and
passengers more efficiently. With optimization and
other improvements, these hubs can reduce GHG
and criteria pollutant emissions, as well as
regional VMT.367'368'369 Investments in intermodal
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freight facilities can enable shippers to combine
modes in the same shipment, such as using rail or
maritime for the largest distance of a freight
shipment and transferring to truck to reach the
destination. Supporting lower-emission freight
modes and intermodal facilities will give shippers
more modal choices to optimize the energy
efficiency of their shipments.
Due to inherent modal and infrastructure
limitations, different modes cannot always
substitute for one another on a one-to-one basis.
Efforts to expand access to alternative modes
must consider factors such as speed, flexibility,
and customer service, which freight customers
may prioritize when making choices between
modes.370 CAPs must also be considered when
estimating the benefits and costs of expanded
mode choice. Using lower- and zero-emission
forms of transport should be prioritized wherever
possible to maximize the benefits of expanded
access to efficient freight modes. Despite this
complexity, substantial benefits could be realized
from expanded access to efficient freight modes,
including improved energy efficiency, reduced
emissions, increased freight system resiliency, and
lowered costs.371372
Other strategies to increase freight efficiency
through expanded mode choice include actions to
improve the efficiency of first- and last-mile trips
through the promotion of shared mobility and
micromobility for passengers, as well as cargo
bikes and unmanned automated vehicles for
deliveries. Emerging modes such as electric cargo
bikes may also play an important role in
decarbonizing last-mile deliveries.
Passenger. Providing passengers with expanded
transportation options—including rail and bus
modes—may also produce substantial GHG
reduction benefits.373 The Efficiency and Rail Action
Plans discuss efforts to support expanded access
to these modes. While current trends of low
ridership have resulted in transit buses currently
having greater energy consumption per
passenger mile than LDVs or rail,374 increasing
ridership and transitioning to ZEVs can reverse this
trend and produce efficiency gains.
Freight consolidation is another strategy that can be
used to improve the efficiency of goods movement.
For example, shippers can merge partial and low-
density shipments into full-truckload intermodal
containers headed to and from ports, thereby
optimizing container weight and volume to reduce
the number of containers needed. Companies can
also use less packaging to fit more products into
each container, thus reducing the overall number of
containers and truck or rail delivery miles in and
around ports.
Near-Term Actions
The following are near-term actions for the federal
government to expand access to efficient modes.
Additional actions may occur at state and local
levels and among private actors.
Research and analysis are needed to establish
long-term targets and investment priorities.
Improved modeling of mode choice is needed to
identify priority infrastructure investments and
assess life cycle impacts. In addition, as MHDV
vehicle and operational efficiency improve,
efficiency improvements in other modes must also
continue to realize the benefits of this strategy. One
example of ongoing research is DOE's Advanced
Research Project Agency, which announced funding
under the exploratory topic INcreasina
Transportation Efficiency and Resiliency through
MODeling Assets and Logistics (INTERMODAL) to fund
projects that develop technology to model the low-
carbon intermodal freight transportation system of
the future.
Investment needs will include infrastructure
investments to reduce bottlenecks within the rail
network to improve freight rail efficiency and
attractiveness as a shipping mode. Inland
waterways have many of the same real and
perceived disadvantages as rail when compared to
trucks.375 Inland ports have traditionally been limited
by a lack of investment, and many are not prepared
to handle large shipments.376 Investments in inland
ports could boost shipments on inland waterways
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both as a substitute for some truck and rail routes
and as a component of multimodal shipments.
Investments in intermodal hubs will also be needed.
Current federal funding programs include the
DOT Office of Multimodal Freight Infrastructure and
Policy, which funds investments in multimodal
freight mobility; DOT'S Mega and INFRA grant
programs; the Federal Railroad Administration's
Consolidated Rail Infrastructure and Safety
Improvements program, which funds investments
in improved rail infrastructure, safety, and
reliability; and the Port Infrastructure Development
Program and the Marine Highway Program, which
fund investments in port infrastructure and marine
corridors. DOT will designate a National Multimodal
Freight Network in 2024 that supports the use of
lower-carbon modes. The Efficiency Action Plan,
the Maritime Action Plan, and the Rail Action Plan
also provide more details about these programs.
Federal actions to increase transit bus ridership
include increased funding for public
transportation systems, increased investments in
"transit deserts" and disadvantaged communities,
expanded frequency and hours of service, and
expanded free- and reduced-fare programs.
Funding through FTA formula funding and
discretionary grant programs can help local
transit agencies implement these actions.
4.3.2.2 Operational and Vehicle-Level Efficiency
Operational best practices and vehicle-level
efficiency improvements offer near-term
opportunities to improve the energy efficiency of
MHDVs on the road today. Strategic priorities
include the following:
1) Improve congestion management and
reduce vehicle idling, through strategies such
as freight digitization with a particular
emphasis on areas with high freight activity,
such as ports and intermodal hubs.
2) Encourage the uptake of current best
practices, such as aftermarket anti-idling
technologies and tractor and trailer
aerodynamic devices, through funding
programs and regulation.
3) Support research in emerging technologies
and operational practices, including vehicle
lightweighting and aerodynamic
improvements and truck platooning.
Improving MHDV vehicle and operational
efficiency often has direct economic benefits for
fleets, resulting in substantial existing market
pressures to implement efficiency-improving
measures wherever it is financially beneficial and
operationally feasible to do so. Efforts to improve
MHDV efficiency at the federal level should
address areas where market barriers or
misaligned incentives exist, such as actions with
high up-front investments or high uncertainty,
information asymmetries, or coordination
challenges across different stakeholders.
Operational Strategies to Reduce Congestion and
Vehicle Idling
Idling is a substantial contributor to fuel
consumption and local air pollution, with studies
suggesting idling times between 2 and 8 hours for
some truck classes and up to 8% of fuel burned for
sleeper trucks.377 378 379 Efforts to reduce vehicle idling
can both produce fuel savings for fleets and
improve local air quality for impacted communities.
Freight digitization is one strategy with substantial
potential benefits. Digital solutions include
advanced scheduling and routing systems,
location tracking using geographic information
systems (GIS), and vehicle-to-vehicle and
vehicle-to-infrastructure technologies (V2V/V2I, or
V2X). The International Transport Forum analyzed
the overall impacts of a "digital transformation"
scenario on freight-related CO2 emissions and
found that implementing a range of digital
solutions to the freight sector will result in over 20%
lower CO2 emissions in 2050 compared to the no-
action baseline.380
Most freight and goods movement innovations are
developed by industry-leading companies, which
have strong incentives to reduce unnecessary
travel, delays, and other factors that contribute to
higher operating costs. However, the federal
government can play a role in easing coordination
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problems across private organizations and
incentivizing innovation at key areas such as ports.
A key example is truck appointment systems,
which allow trucks to schedule their visits in
advance. Early demonstrations have shown that
truck appointment systems have substantial
potential to reduce congestion, idling, and
emissions for drayage trucks at ports381 and have
been implemented at the Port of New York and
New Jersey, the Ports of Los Angeles and Long
Beach, and the Port of New Orleans.382'383 A key
need for the expansion of these programs is the
development of streamlined and interoperable
systems across port terminals to enable ease of
scheduling for drivers.
Other digital solutions, such as the development of
truck parking reservation systems, may also
improve both efficiency and convenience by
reducing the number of miles driven in search of
parking and reducing time spent idling while
waiting for spots to open. Substantial public
benefits may result from such solutions; the state
of Colorado estimates a value of more than $7
returned for every dollar of investment, with
benefits including improved safety as well as
emissions reductions.384
Best Practices for Fleet-Level Efficiency
Improvements
Incentivizing the adoption of today's efficiency-
improving measures can produce fuel cost savings
for fleets and substantial air quality, climate, and
public health benefits.385 Behind driver wages, fuel is
the second-largest source of operational costs for
many MHDV fleets,386 providing strong incentives for
commercial fleets to implement strategies to
improve MHDV efficiency where economically
beneficial. A number of fuel-efficiency-improving
devices are available on the market today,
including tractor and trailer aerodynamic devices
such as gap reducers, underbody devices, skirts,
boat tails, improved tires with reduced rolling
resistance, and anti-idling technologies such as
auxiliary power units.
Efficiency is improving across the MHDV fleet in
part thanks to fleet-level actions; deadhead miles
(miles in which a truck drives without a load)
reduced to a new low of 24% of miles in 2021 (15%
when tankers were excluded).387 However,
adoption of efficiency-improving technologies
may not always occur due to economic
considerations (such as the cost of diesel, which
can impact payback periods for efficiency-
improving devices), or other factors such as driver
preferences or a lack of education. Since 2010,
combination truck fleet-wide average fuel
economy has improved by only 3%, from 5.9 to 6.1
miles per gallon of diesel.388 Substantial potential
exists for improvement—NACFE estimates that with
the best currently available technologies and
practices, tractor-trailer fuel efficiency could
reach 8.3 to 10.1 miles per gallon.389
Innovative Technology Solutions
Innovative technology solutions include vehicle
improvements such as component lightweighting
and aerodynamic innovations, as well as
emerging solutions such as truck platooning,
which improves vehicle efficiency using
connected and autonomous vehicle technologies.
These vehicle-level efficiency solutions have
benefits for all power trains, including ZEVs. For
ZEVs, these technologies not only offer fuel cost
savings but may act as functional range extension
for short-range vehicles, making them particularly
important for early adopters of BEVs.
The 2016 SuperTruck 2 program, a DOE- and
industry-funded partnership, demonstrated 11 to 13
miles per gallon increases in MHDV fuel economy
(more than double the fuel economy of diesel
vehicles).390 Innovative ideas included optimizing
tractor and trailer aerodynamic design, deploying
gap-reduction technologies, reducing rolling
resistance through improved tires, improving
brake thermal efficiency, vehicle and trailer
lightweighting, and 48-V hybridization of vehicle
accessories. Many of these innovations have
entered the market today, but further research in
some areas, such as cost and benefits of vehicle
lightweighting—including for zero-emission power
trains—can enable continued commercialization
and uptake of these technology innovations.391
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Connected and autonomous vehicle technologies,
and in particular truck platooning, are emerging
as a solution with substantial fuel-efficiency-
savings potential. Truck platooning, which involves
between two and four trucks traveling at close
distances enabled by using connected adaptive
cruise control technology and vehicle-to-vehicle
communication, has the potential to reduce fuel
use by up to 10% by improving aerodynamic
efficiency. Recent projects funded by DOT have
resulted in the development of a pilot system to
enable partially autonomous truck platooning,
with field operational tests ongoing.392 393
Near-Term Actions
Private actors and government partnerships can
continue to improve MHDV fleet and vehicle-level
efficiency. Areas for action include the following:
Private actors. Private actors, including fleets, ITS
providers, and automakers, can continue to adopt
and improve upon best practices for fleet-level
efficiency, including the adoption of advanced
scheduling, routing and GIS, and efficiency-
improving technologies to minimize fleet energy
consumption and reduce idling.
Federal government. The federal government can
support existing research programs and industry
partnerships to improve efficiency and promote
coordination and interoperability among ITS.
Existing regulatory actions will also incentivize the
uptake of efficient practices. These actions include
the following:
• Support of improved port efficiency. Federal
guidance can facilitate the expansion of truck
appointment systems at U.S. ports and
terminals, including the development of
interoperable systems across multiple
terminals. The EPA Ports Initiative includes a
suite of operational strategies port operators
can employ to accomplish substantive
emissions reductions as well as time and cost
savings through establishment and
implementation of port operational strategies.
• Regulation. EPA and NHTSA's recently
released emissions and fuel economy
standards for MHDVs provide a regulatory
framework to encourage the adoption of
efficiency-improving technologies beginning
in MY 2027 (for EPA standards) and MY 2030
(for NHTSA standards, covering Class 2B and 3
pickup trucks and vans).
• Provision of incentives for existing efficiency-
improving technologies. Existing federal
programs such as the Reduction of Truck
Emissions at Port Facilities Grant Program
provide incentives and education for fleets on
the benefits of adopting efficiency-improving
technologies and practices.
• Continued research into emerging efficiency
solutions. Federal and industry partnerships
should continue to investigate the
commercialization of advanced efficiency-
improving solutions such as vehicle
lightweighting and aerodynamic design,
which will be especially important for
reducing the weight of ZEVs and increasing
feasible payloads. Additional research is also
needed into truck platooning to further assess
potential barriers, such as public acceptance
and interactions with LD vehicles, and to
explore economic and regulatory frameworks
that may make such solutions feasible.
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5. CROSS-CUTTING STRATEGIES
TO SUPPORT TRANSPORTATION
DECARBONIZATION
5.1 Building Good Jobs and a Stronger
MHDV Economy
MHDVs play a role in a broad range of passenger,
freight, and other commercial applications. As of
2024, there were over 2 million passenger and
freight motor carriers,394 transporting
approximately 65% of the country's freight by
weight.395 In the passenger sector, buses served
nearly half of the 7.1 billion trips made on public
transportation in 20 21.396 The workforce employed
in these sectors includes approximately 2 million
heavy-truck drivers397 and 1 million light-truck
drivers,398 approximately 185,000 transit and
intercity bus drivers,399 and over 371,000 school bus
drivers employed across the country.400 The
automotive industry (including both LDVs and
MHDVs) employs more than 1 million workers in
motor vehicle and parts manufacturing and more
than 2 million in vehicle and parts dealerships. The
supporting workforce also includes around 1
million people who are employed in the
automotive repair and maintenance industry
(also serving both LDVs and MHDVs).401
Transitioning to a decarbonized MHDV sector will
substantially affect these industries, involving
increased production and jobs in ZEVs, component
technologies, fuels, and infrastructure.402
Continued federal leadership is needed to ensure
the clean MHDV transition benefits all workers and
communities, including those that have been
historically left behind, through actions such as
policies and incentives to support high-quality job
creation and retention, as well as ongoing
investments in domestic industries and supply
chains and programs to facilitate worker training
(including reskilling and upskilling).
Maintaining and improving the quality of jobs in
the industry is also key to ensuring a smooth and
sustained transition. Through its EOs on Worker
Organizing and Empowerment. Tackling the
Climate Crisis, and others, the administration has
underscored its focus on retention and creation of
good-paying, high-quality jobs. Good Jobs
Principles developed by the U.S. Departments of
Commerce and Labor outline eight principles for
good jobs to guide efforts across industry and
government levels. The eight principles include
stable living wages; family-sustaining benefits;
equitable opportunities for career advancement
and skill building; organizational cultures that
value employees and promote empowerment and
representation, and where workers can form and
join unions; workplaces that are committed to
diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility and
provide job security and safe working conditions;
and active recruitment and hiring that is free
from discrimination.
A key example of MHDV-focused innovation and
industry expansion is the Regional Clean Hydrogen
Hubs Program created by the BIL. This program will
stimulate investments in the production and
distribution of hydrogen; in supporting industries
such as infrastructure, maintenance, and repair;
and in end uses such as industry and
transportation, creating thousands of skilled jobs
in the process. Other opportunities for high-quality
job creation, innovation, and industry expansion
through MHDV decarbonization include ZEVs,
component and infrastructure manufacturing and
assembly, research and development,
infrastructure deployment (including charging
and refueling installation and operation and grid
upgrades and modernization), maintenance and
repair (of ZEVs, infrastructure, and fuel production
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systems), and sustainable liquid fuel feedstock
development and production. These will create
and retain jobs in many skilled professions,
including engineering, construction trades,
installation, maintenance and repair, motor
vehicle operations, manufacturing and assembly,
and more.403 The federal government is
committed to ensuring a sustainable economic
transition, through sustained focus on proactive
worker and community outreach and
engagement, high labor standards, equitable
investment, enhanced domestic manufacturing
and infrastructure, and support for workers and
businesses at all stages of the transition.
5.2 Supply Chain and Manufacturing
Investments in scalable vehicle and component
manufacturing processes and supply chains are a
core part of the pathway toward lowering ZEV
costs and capturing economic and jobs benefits.
Many ZE-MHDVs are manufactured at low volumes
today, resulting in higher costs due to a lack of
economies of scale. Upstream components used
in the production of fuels and infrastructure—such
as hydrogen electrolyzers and sustainable liquid-
fuel technologies—will also need to scale
manufacturing to enable competitive costs.
Investments in domestic BEV manufacturing and
supply chains will be crucial to maintain U.S.
economic security and global competitiveness
and can substantially invigorate the U.S.
manufacturing and clean energy industries, while
building partnerships with key allies can fill in
remaining supply gaps that cannot be filled
domestically. Compliance with the Build America
Buy America Act and other Buy America
requirements for publicly procured fleets, such as
municipal and school buses, and for charging
infrastructure also provides a key demand signal
and additional domestic jobs benefits.
Access to critical supplies such as batteries, power
controls, and cabling will directly determine the
potential to scale up zero-emission technology.
Dedicated efforts to increase the efficiency of
battery production and to recycle critical
materials will lower capital costs and reduce
environmental and social consequences of
mining. Current global battery manufacturing
capacity is expected to reach 6,500 GWh by
2030,404 with 1,200 GWh annually in the United
States (compared to current global demand of
about 300 GWh).405 DOE maintains a dashboard
tracking announced U.S. investments in batteries,
ZEVs and component parts, hydrogen production,
and more.406 As of July 2024, announcements
include:
• Battery cell factories sufficient to supply 10
million new BEVs per year.
• Production sufficient for 60,000 fast chargers
per year.
• Manufacturing capacity of 12 GW of
electrolyzers per year and 4 GW of fuel cells.
In addition to these announcements, a facility in
Mississippi was announced in January 2024 by
Cummins, Daimler Trucks, and PACCAR to produce
21 GWh of battery cells for commercial EVs, with
planned production beginning in 2027.407
In addition to this progress, additional objectives
have been established. Objectives for scaled ZEV,
component, and infrastructure manufacturing set
by DOE and others include the following:
• Ensuring access to reliable sources of critical
minerals for battery production, including
sustainably increasing U.S. mineral production
capacity.
• Increasing U.S. domestic minerals processing
and battery production capacity.
• Increasing U.S. recycling capability for critical
battery materials.408
• Scaling clean hydrogen production from 1
MMT per year as of 2023 to 10 MMT per year by
2030, aligned with a pathway to 50 MMT by
2050.409
• In support of this, scaling electrolyzer
production and investing in innovations to
reduce stack and balance of plant costs.
Manufacturing and stack innovations and
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economies of scale could reduce electrolyzer
capital costs by more than two-thirds.410
• Scaling HD fuel cell stack manufacturing to
20,000 stacks per year for a single
manufacturing system.411 Hydrogen
investments are expected to enable production
of 14 GW of fuel cells per year annually in the
United States, enough to produce 50,000 MHDV
FCEVs per year, or 15% of the market.412 Fuel cell
manufacturing at scale could reduce fuel cell
system production costs by more than one-
third by 2030.413
Investments in grid upgrades and modernization
will also be critical to sustain increased electricity
demand from ZEVs and hydrogen production
processes.
NEAR-TERM ACTIONS
The federal government has made substantial
investments in ZEV manufacturing and supply
chains. Near-term actions will involve the continued
implementation of these investments. The IRA and
BIL allocate billions of dollars in incentives for
achieving manufacturing and supply chain targets.
These include the following incentives, financing,
research, and development programs:
• $3.5 billion in funding through the BIL to build
a domestic supply chain for critical minerals
and components, expand domestic battery
minerals and materials processing capacity,
and expand U.S. advanced battery
manufacturing capacity.
• The Qualifying Advanced Energy Project
Credit (48C). which allocates $4 billion in tax
credits for investments in clean energy
manufacturing and recycling, critical
materials, and industrial decarbonization, with
an additional $6 billion announced. $2.5
billion in funding will be centered on
designated energy communities, which
include communities with retired coal mines.
• The Advanced Manufacturing Production Tax
Credit (45X). which includes tax credits of up
to $10/kWh for manufacturers of battery
modules using battery cells, such as lithium-
ion batteries.
• Biodiesel excise tax credits and income tax
credits of up to $1.00/gallon, applying to
biodiesel, agri-biodiesel, and RD.
• The Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit
(45V). allocating tax credits of up to $3/kg for
production of clean hydrogen (defined as
hydrogen with a CI of up to 4 kg CO2-
equivalent emissions per kg of production).
• The Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs Program.
allocating $8 billion for hydrogen production,
manufacturing, and distribution.
• The Advanced Technology Vehicles
Manufacturing Loan Program, which has
conditionally committed or loaned more than
$20 billion since 2020 for facilities, with several
billion dollars engaged in manufacturing
eligible vehicles (including MHDVs) and
components, including critical materials for
batteries, manufacturing charging
infrastructure, and modernizing facilities.
• The Domestic Automotive Manufacturing
Conversion Grants program, which allocates
$2 billion in grants for domestic
manufacturing of HEVs, PHEVs, BEVs, and
FCEVs, with a focus on conversion of facilities
and retention of jobs currently in the ICE
supply chain.
Other programs include DOE's Hydrogen Shot
program, which allocates funding to reduce the
cost of clean hydrogen to $l/kg by 2031, including
funding for industry demonstrations.
5.3 Workforce Development and
Transition
Workforce development programs are an
essential component of expanding ZEV adoption in
industries such as manufacturing, infrastructure
installation and maintenance, and vehicle
operations and maintenance. Appropriately skilled
and trained workers are key to ensuring safety,
efficiency, and effective ramp-up of new
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production. High-quality training pathways that
train for careers in industry, not just individual
tasks, are critical to attracting, retaining, and
ensuring a workforce that can evolve as the
industry does.
Automotive workers will need to be trained in new
production methods for BEVs, FCEVs, and battery
production, while BEV operators will need to be
trained in skills such as driving with regenerative
braking, charging, and interpreting vehicle state of
charge and range. BEV mechanics will require
training on working with high-voltage electrical
systems, safety, and maintenance of BEV-specific
vehicle components.414 Additional training will be
required for maintaining FCEVs, as well as on
working with hydrogen production, delivery, and
storage systems.
Training for this transition is already underway
through existing industry, union, and educational
organization training partnerships, and numerous
organizations and consortia are actively providing
or developing training programs and resources for
ZEVs, batteries, and EVSE. Expanding pathways into
and through these programs can fill specific gaps,
while retention, training, and upskilling of existing
production workers, mechanics and operators will
be key to rapid and flexible adoption and will also
maintain critical skill sets and job quality.
Examples include:
• California Energy Commission: Offers
programs focusing on BEV technology and
infrastructure.
• Colorado Department of Transportation:
Provides funding opportunities for ZEV
workforce development in the state.
• Michigan Department of Labor and Economic
Opportunity: Develops workforce training
programs for emerging clean energy
technologies.
• National Alternative Fuels Training
Consortium: The only nationwide organization
in the United States offering training on
alternative fuel vehicles and advanced
technology vehicles.
• Center for Hydrogen Safety: Focuses on
training and safety protocols related to
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
• Transit Workforce Center (TWC): Provides
training and resources for public
transportation workers, including those
working with electric and hydrogen-fueled
buses.
• Society of Automotive Engineers fSAE):
Provides training on standards, regulations,
safety practices, battery technologies, vehicle
architectures, high-voltage safety, and fuel
cells.
• The Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Training
Program (EVITP): A curriculum and
certification program developed through
partnerships among industry, labor, and
educational institutions to train electricians in
installing and maintaining BEV charging
stations. Such certifications are now required
for electricians installing or maintaining EPA-
funded charging stations.
Programs as part of federal agencies and funding
programs include the following:
• The DOE-convened Battery Workforce
Initiative is a partnership between
government and stakeholders in the
advanced battery industry to develop training
and materials for workers in key occupations
to advance workforce development.
• EPA's Clean School Bus Program encourages
schools and school districts to develop
workforce readiness plans to support the ZEV
transition, with several resources offered on
EPA's website.
• Hydrogen Education for a Decarbonized
Economy is a collaboration among
government, industry, and universities that aims
to provide training in hydrogen production,
delivery, storage, end uses, and safety.
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• FT A funds the TWC to support public transit
workforce development. TWC uses its extensive
experience and knowledge of bus electrification
operations and maintenance to reskill and
upskill current and future transit workers.
NEAR-TERM ACTIONS
While many programs are under development,
gaps remain. Today's training opportunities are
often limited, particularly for vehicle maintenance.
The World Resources Institute found that BEV
maintenance training is typically offered by OEMs
but lacks standardization or follow-up courses.415
Future federal efforts should focus on the
following areas:
• Expand national curricula and
certifications—such as EVITP—to ensure that
workers have the necessary skills and
knowledge to operate and maintain ZEVs and
their infrastructure. Certifications can also
provide a clear career pathway for individuals
entering the field. Programs should be
standardized to ensure uniformity in the
quality of training.
• Increase support for technical schools and
community colleges to develop and expand
ZEV-related programs. These programs can
help acquire equipment, develop curricula,
and train instructors.
• Promote partnerships among industry,
unions, and educational institutions to
facilitate the development of relevant training
programs. These partnerships can also
provide students with hands-on experience
and access to the latest technology.
• Conduct public awareness campaigns.
Increasing public awareness about career
opportunities in the ZEV sector can attract
more individuals to the field. Campaigns
should highlight the benefits of working with
clean technologies and the potential for job
growth.
By addressing these gaps through coordinated
efforts and targeted investments, the government
can ensure the creation of a skilled workforce
capable of supporting the widespread adoption
and maintenance of ZEVs and their infrastructure.
This will not only facilitate the transition to a
cleaner transportation system but also create
high-quality jobs and promote economic growth.
5.4 Community Impacts
Reducing emissions from all transportation
sectors, and especially the MHDV sector, results in
reduced negative impacts on communities.
In addition to GHG emissions, the transportation
sector and MHDVs are responsible for other
emissions that affect communities. Though
representing only a small portion of vehicles on
the road, MHDVs contribute disproportionately to
air pollution, and the MHDV sector is the single
largest emitter of on-road NOx.416
MHDVs' outsized emissions of air pollution can be
linked to the use of diesel fuel. Though diesel
engines are increasingly cleaner, diesel exhaust
and associated CAP and precursor emissions can
still contribute to asthma, respiratory illnesses,
cancer, and heart and lung disease, resulting in
high numbers of hospital visits, absences from
work and school, and premature death.417'418'419'420'
421 422 Children, older adults, people with preexisting
cardiopulmonary disease, people of low
socioeconomic status, and racial and ethnic
minorities are among those at higher risk for
health impacts.423 424
Noise and air pollution affect millions of people,
especially those who live near transportation hubs
such as highways, ports, warehouses, or rail yards
or near petroleum extraction, refinery, storage, or
transport infrastructure.425 426 Transportation
emissions can also increase downwind ambient
concentrations of non-GHG pollutants such as
those mentioned above. Nationally, impacts from
air pollution affect people of color
disproportionately; for example, Black Americans
are 40% more likely to have asthma and almost
three times more likely to die from asthma-related
causes than non-Hispanic white Americans.427
These health disparities result in part from the
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historical federal, state, and local laws that
supported racial segregation, including
transportation, home finance, and tax laws.428 429'
430,431 people of color and low-income people are
more likely to live near truck routes and ports.432
Transit buses and school buses can also create air
pollution and exacerbate poor air quality in
overburdened communities. Exposure to diesel
exhaust from school buses has been linked with
school absences, and research has shown that
attendance improves when schools replace their
school buses with cleaner vehicles.433 Transit riders
can be exposed to pollution while waiting at bus
stops. Zero-emission public transit and school
buses can provide transit riders and children with
a way to travel to and from work or school with
reduced exposure to dangerous emissions, reduce
the exposures to traffic-related air pollution
among people near major roads, and, in part,
"remove or overcome the effects of the prior
discriminatory practice or usage."434
NEAR-TERM ACTIONS
Improving communities through MHDV emissions
reduction can occur at all levels of government and
through private actions. Private, local, and state
government actions can include actions to spur ZEV
adoption, as discussed in Chapter 3. Private actions
can also include partnerships with government
agencies to improve emissions inventories in
transport hubs, such as ports—an example being
EPA's partnership with Port Everglades. Other private
actions may include efficiency-improving actions in
transportation hubs such as ports, such as efforts to
reduce MHDV idling. State governments can adopt
regulations such as California's Advanced Clean
Trucks rule and tailor state-level ZEV incentive
programs to prioritize ZEV and infrastructure
deployment in environmentally burdened and
disadvantaged communities.435
Federal actions. The federal government's actions
to reduce emissions from the transportation
system can result in significant benefits to public
health and welfare.436'437 438 Proposed and ongoing
actions can be summarized as follows:
Invest in multimodal zero-emission freight
operations. Federal investments—especially in
maritime, rail, off-road, and MHDV modes—have
the potential to transform air quality in areas near
high levels of freight activity through the
replacement of aging gasoline and diesel vehicles
with clean technologies. Substantial federal
investments in vehicles, infrastructure, and
workforce development are ongoing through
federal programs, including the NEVI and CFI
deployment grants (though NEVI thus far has been
targeted toward LDVs), and many other DOE-,
DOT-, EPA-, and HUD-funded initiatives relating to
MHDVs. Several programs are highlighted below:
• EPA's Clean Ports Program provides $3 billion
in funding for zero-emission mobile
equipment to reduce emissions at ports,
including for zero-emission drayage trucks
and infrastructure.
• EPA's Clean Heavy-Duty Vehicles Program
provides $1 billion to replace Class 6 and 7
vehicles with zero-emission models.
• EPA's Clean School Bus Program provides
$5 billion to replace old school buses with
clean alternatives.
Other federal programs are intended to aid
disadvantaged and overburdened communities
with funding for climate and air pollution solutions,
and this funding is flexible depending on
community needs. These programs include the
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund and
Environmental and Climate Justice Program. DOT
administers the Reduction of Truck Emissions at
Port Facilities program and the Port Infrastructure
Development Program, which provides funding for
various emissions reduction measures at ports,
including purchasing ZE-MHDVs and installing
charging and fueling infrastructure.
Identify priority communities. As investments in
cleaner transportation solutions increase, it will be
important to ensure that disadvantaged
communities reap the benefit of those
investments, including jobs and business
opportunities. The Climate and Environmental
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Justice Screening Tool and Equitable
Transportation Community Explorer assist federal
agencies and stakeholders in identifying
disadvantaged communities.
Additional actions to identify priority freight hubs
can support ongoing federal programs. Research,
data collection, and outreach can help ensure
prioritization of the most affected communities.
This can include the following actions:
• Improved data collection on freight activity,
emissions, air quality, and community health
outcomes in critical areas, such as
warehouses, ports, and intermodal hubs.
• Tool development and analysis to assess
impacts of ZEV investments in priority areas.
• Proactive stakeholder outreach, engagement,
and participation—including communities,
nonprofits and other stakeholders—integrated
throughout this process.
Federal regulations. Federal regulations are being
enacted to reduce transportation emissions. EPA's
2022 final rule on heavy-duty engine and vehicle
standards sets stronger emissions standards to
further reduce air pollution from HD vehicles and
engines. That rule alone is projected by 2045 to
reduce up to 2,900 premature deaths and 18,000
cases of asthma in children annually.439 EPA's 2024
rulemaking governing NOx, PM2.5, and GHG
emissions from passenger cars and light- and
medium-duty (Class 2B/3) trucks will also reduce
air pollution and improve public health.440
Public engagement. Seeking public input and
feedback has been embedded into federal
decarbonization programs and rulemakings and
is a key component of achieving a decarbonized
transportation system that supports all
communities. DOT has released a meaningful
public involvement guide for transportation
practitioners and DOT funding recipients to
engage with the public and communities in
transportation decision-making. These principles
have been incorporated throughout DOT
programs. For example, as part of the
development of and annual updates to NEVI state
BEV infrastructure deployment plans, states are
instructed to involve federally recognized Tribal
governments and stakeholder groups in their
plan's development, including the general public;
government entities; labor organizations; private
sector/industry representatives; utilities;
representatives of the transportation and freight
logistics industries; state public transportation
agencies; and urban, rural, and underserved or
disadvantaged communities.441 EPA similarly
maintains a Public Participation Guide, which
provides tools for government agencies to guide
public participation in environmental decision-
making. Continued public engagement aligned
with these principles must be integrated
throughout MHDV decarbonization strategies.
Research and analysis. Further research is needed
on the impacts of infrastructure investments, fuel
production and storage, and MHDV operations on
air quality, safety, racial segregation, and
environmental outcomes for impacted
communities. Further development of modeling
tools is needed to assess the environmental
impacts and distributional implications of MHDV
ZEVs and sustainable-fuel vehicle and
infrastructure investments on outcomes such as
air quality, access to goods and services,
economic benefits, and energy burdens. The Joint
Office funds a number of ongoing projects and
modeling tools aimed at answering such
questions. Future research efforts should ensure
that MHDV decarbonization efforts are
incorporated into such tools and that these tools
assess impacts from all decarbonization
strategies, including ZEVs, sustainable liquid fuels,
and efficiency measures. Improved monitoring of
MHDV activity—particularly in critical locations
such as at ports, warehouses, and intermodal
hubs—will also be needed to quantify the impacts
of ZE-MHDV deployments in these locations for
neighboring and downwind communities.
Tribal engagement. Tribes must be consulted and
Tribal sovereignty must be respected in all federal
MHDV decarbonization efforts. The 2023 EO on
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Tribal self-determination and the 2022
Memorandum on Uniform Standards for Tribal
Consultation lay the foundation for processes and
guidelines by which principles of Tribal sovereignty
and Tribal self-determination are upheld by
federal agencies engaging in any transportation
decarbonization activities. The EV Initiative for
Tribal Nations, which provides technical assistance
to Tribes to deploy BEV infrastructure and access
funding for zero-emission school buses and transit
buses through the EPA Clean School Bus Program
and the DOT Low- or No-Emission Grant Program.
Tribal inclusion in national BEV and hydrogen
fueling infrastructure projects will require
proactive planning, consultation, and support to
address historical inequities and underinvestment
in infrastructure.
5.5 Safety and Standards
Safety, codes, and standards development are a
key enabler of successful ZEV adoption. The safety
and standards for BEVs and FCEVs encompass a
wide range of considerations, from battery and
electrical safety to crashworthiness and charging
or fueling infrastructure. Developed by
international and national organizations, these
standards ensure that both BEVs and FCEVs are
safe for consumers and can operate reliably
within existing transportation systems. Continuous
research and development in this field are
essential to address emerging challenges and
improve the overall safety and performance of
these vehicles. Key priorities of safety, codes, and
standards development are as follows442:
• Advancing research on safety for ZEV
components and charging/refueling
infrastructure technologies, including
identifying risk management practices to
reduce risks and mitigate consequences of
potential incidents
• Promoting harmonization of codes and
standards across industry and private actors
and at local, state, national, and international
levels
• Providing safety resources and support.
KEY ACTORS
Industry, U.S. government, and international
organizations play important roles in establishing
BEV and hydrogen vehicle safety standards.
Industry includes the following:
• The International Electrotechnical
Commission, which develops global
standards for EV components, batteries, and
charging systems.
• SAE. which provides comprehensive
standards covering battery-electric and
hydrogen components, vehicles, and
infrastructure safety, performance, and
testing procedures.
• The International Organization for
Standardization, which publishes international
standards for a wide array of industries,
including conventional and electric vehicle
safety standards, ensuring uniformity and
quality across global markets.
• Underwriters Laboratories, an independent
organization responsible for developing
safety standards and certifying BEV charging
equipment, ensuring reliability and safety in
charging infrastructure.
• The National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), which develops codes and standards
for the safe handling and use of hydrogen
technologies, prioritizing safety in hydrogen
applications.
Within the federal government, DOT agencies
include NHTSA. which issues and enforces the
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards governing
the safety of on-road vehicles; the Federal Motor
Carrier Safety Administration, which regulates the
safety of commercial motor carriers; and FHWA.
which provides stewardship over the construction,
maintenance, and preservation of the nation's
highways, bridges, and tunnels. FHWA also
conducts research and provides technical
assistance to state and local agencies to improve
safety and mobility and to encourage innovation.
DOT'S Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
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Administration ensures the safe shipment of
hazardous materials and pipelines, including the
safety of hydrogen distribution. Other federal
agencies, such as DOE, also fund research and
development relevant to ZEV and
recharging/fueling infrastructure components and
safety.
Internationally, the European Union develops
regulations and directives to establish safety and
performance standards for vehicles within
member states. The United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) develops Global
Technical Regulations and UNECE regulations for
vehicle safety, fostering international collaboration
and standardization. Additionally, the Canadian
Standards Association provides standards for
hydrogen vehicle storage systems and fueling
infrastructure, ensuring safety and reliability in
hydrogen transportation within Canada. Together,
these organizations collectively contribute to the
establishment of robust safety standards,
fostering the growth and adoption of ZEVs
worldwide.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES
While significant work has already been
accomplished across these organizations in
developing standards for BEV and FCEV safety,
recharging, and refueling infrastructure safety, as
well as hydrogen handling and storage, key gaps
and research priorities remain that must be
addressed. For BEVs, these include the following:
• Continued research on battery safety and
longevity: A major focus of battery safety
research efforts is on preventing thermal
runaway through advanced materials and
designs that improve heat dissipation.443 The
development of next-generation thermal
management systems, such as those using
phase change materials or liquid cooling, is
needed to improve heat dissipation during
operation and charging. Improving battery
management systems with predictive
analytics and machine learning models can
further help in anticipating and mitigating
potential safety issues before they escalate.444
Investigating long-term battery degradation
and enhancing battery life is another critical
area. Conducting in-depth studies on the
mechanisms of electrode and electrolyte
degradation over time will help identify and
mitigate factors that reduce battery life.445
Next-generation battery technologies such as
solid-state batteries are a potentially safer
option that is less prone to thermal runaway
than present-day lithium-ion technologies.
Moreover, establishing robust standards and
technologies for the recycling and safe
disposal of BEV batteries is essential to
address environmental concerns.446
• High-voltage system and electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) safety: Enhancing
isolation standards for high-voltage systems
and ensuring EMC standards are essential for
preventing electric shock and interference
between electrical systems and hydrogen
safety systems. Additional research is needed
for new insulation materials that provide
better protection against electric shock and
short circuits at high voltages. Advanced fault
detection systems and automated response
mechanisms are also crucial for quickly
isolating and mitigating electrical faults.
Research aims include implementing real-
time monitoring systems with high-resolution
sensors and designing automated shutdown
mechanisms.447 448 Developing standardized
repair procedures and comprehensive,
safety-oriented training programs for
technicians are also necessary.
• Charging infrastructure: Enhancing
standards for ultrafast charging to reduce
charging times without compromising battery
safety and longevity is a significant area of
focus. While the MCS is actively developing
standards for high-power charging of BEVs,
particularly for HD trucks, significant work
remains. This includes finalizing technical
specifications, ensuring interoperability
between different manufacturers' equipment,
and addressing infrastructure challenges
such as grid capacity and charging station
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deployment. Additionally, industry-wide
adoption and regulatory approval are
necessary to make these standards widely
operational.449 450 Furthermore, developing
safety and performance standards for
wireless charging technologies is essential to
ensure efficiency and user safety. Another
area of importance is ensuring the
interoperability of charging infrastructure
across different regions and manufacturers—
particularly to facilitate cross-border BEV
operations.451
For hydrogen, research priorities include the
following:
• Fueling infrastructure and standardization:
Improving high-flow dispensing technology
and developing advanced nozzle designs are
necessary to enhance refueling speed and
safety.,452.453 This includes advancing
cryogenic pump development and creating
nozzle designs that minimize hydrogen
release and ensure robust sealing to prevent
leaks..454 Developing universal interoperability
standards and harmonizing international
standards for hydrogen fueling infrastructure
are crucial for facilitating cross-border
hydrogen vehicle operations.
• Advanced hydrogen storage solutions:
Development of innovative materials for
hydrogen storage tanks is essential for
advancing hydrogen storage technology.
Doing so will necessitate new certification
codes and standards for assessing structural
integrity of these systems. Research efforts
should focus on improving hydrogen
absorption/desorption kinetics, storage
capacity, and material stability over multiple
cycles.455 The development of advanced
composite materials is necessary to enhance
the safety and efficiency of hydrogen storage
systems under extreme conditions.456
Enhancing testing protocols for high-pressure
hydrogen vessels, including more rigorous
fatigue testing and impact resistance
assessments, is necessary to ensure the long-
term durability of storage vessels both on and
off the vehicle.
• Leak detection and mitigation: To address
hydrogen leaks effectively (in transport,
storage, and end use), the development of
highly sensitive and reliable hydrogen sensors
and associated standards for design,
validation, monitoring, and inspections is
critical.457'458'459'460 Integrated safety systems
combining leak detection, ventilation, and
automatic shutdown mechanisms are
essential to prevent hazardous situations. This
involves designing automated ventilation and
purge systems capable of rapidly diluting
hydrogen to prevent accumulation in
confined spaces, as well as implementing
redundant leak detection networks to ensure
reliable detection.
Cross-cutting issues affecting both batteries and
ZEVs include the following:
• Crashworthiness and structural integrity:
This includes testing and inspection
standards focused on improving
crashworthiness and structural integrity,
including integrating lightweight, high-
strength materials, improving vehicle designs
to provide better protection for batteries and
hydrogen storage systems in collisions, and
developing advanced crash simulation
models to predict mechanical, thermal, and
chemical interactions of vehicle systems in
collision scenarios.461 462
• Fire safety and management: Development
of advanced systems for early warning of
battery or hydrogen fires is critical. Integrating
advanced gas sensors to detect the early
stages of hydrogen leaks463 464 and sensors to
monitor battery packs for abnormal
temperature increases can provide early
warnings.465 Developing effective fire-
suppression systems specifically designed for
EVs and their battery packs is also necessary.
Additionally, creating comprehensive training
programs and guidelines for first responders
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dealing with battery and fuel cell EV-related
incidents is essential, as well as developing
standardized procedures for safely disabling
high-voltage systems and handling ZEV-
specific hazards during emergencies.466
• Highway infrastructure impacts
assessments: These include further ZE-MHDV
safety assessments for roads, bridges, and
tunnels as well as assessments of road wear
and maintenance needs. Of particular
importance is further research on safe
operations in tunnels, for which hydrogen-
powered vehicles may present specific
hazards.467
• Cybersecurity: Developing and standardizing
secure communication protocols and
establishing strong authentication
mechanisms for V2G and V2X interactions are
important to protect data integrity and
confidentiality. Real-time monitoring and
anomaly detection systems are necessary to
identify and respond to potential
cybersecurity threats effectively.468'469 DOT is
developing the Security Credential
Management System to address V2X security
and interoperability. DOE's Office of
Cybersecurity. Energy Security, and
Emergency Response also funds research in
BEV and EVSE cybersecurity.
HARMONIZATION OF CODES AND STANDARDS
Codes and standards harmonization is necessary to
enable manufacturing at scale and to accelerate
deployment of ZEVs and charging/refueling
infrastructure by minimizing complexity across
jurisdictions.470 Model code development—in
collaboration with government and private actors-
can help inform standardization of safety codes at
state and local jurisdictions. Working toward global
harmonization of battery-electric and hydrogen
vehicle standards is necessary to facilitate
international trade (including cross-border ZE-
MHDV travel) and ensure consistent safety and
performance.471 Developing unified testing
protocols can ensure consistent evaluation of ZEV
safety and performance across different regions.
Adaptive regulatory frameworks that can quickly
respond to technological advancements and
emerging safety concerns in the BEV and FCEV
industries are also needed.
SAFETY RESOURCES AND SUPPORT
Resources for first responders are necessary to
ensure up-to-date training and experience with
incident response for emerging ZEV technologies.
The U.S. government and private actors both
provide guidance and training for first responders
dealing with hydrogen-related emergencies—such
as the National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Emergency
Response Training developed by Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory and the California Hydrogen
Fuel Cell Partnership—as well as training for dealing
with electrical infrastructure and BEV-related
emergencies. AFDC maintains a database of
resources for first responders dealing with electrical
incidents, including guidebooks and training
programs.
NEAR-TERM ACTIONS
The following are near-term actions that can be
undertaken by private actors and federal, state,
and local governments:
• Private actors, such as industry and standards
organizations, can continue to develop codes
and standards in collaboration with
government researchers and work toward
harmonization across industry, as well as
provide safety resources for first responders.
Federal government can:
• Continue research and development on
fundamental safety issues for ZEVs, in
collaboration with industry on standards
development, through departments such as
DOE and DOT. Ongoing stakeholder outreach
will also inform new standards development
for ZEVs and recharging/refueling
infrastructure.
• Provide guidance on standardization for state
and local jurisdictions. Examples of such
guidance provided by DOE include permitting
tools developed by HFTO to inform the
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development of codes and standards for
hydrogen and fuel cells.
• Continue to provide safety resources and
support for first responders that are adaptive
to changing technologies and best practices,
in collaboration with private actors.
• State and local governments can evaluate
and consider codes and standards
developed by the U.S. government and
industry and decide how and whether to
incorporate them into state and local
ordinances. For example, many states have
adopted some or all aspects of the National
Electrical Code maintained by NFPA.472 NFPA 2
(Hydrogen Technologies Code) is also
commonly used, in some cases with
modifications across state and local
jurisdictions.473 474
5.6 International Coordination
International collaboration on ZE-MHDV adoption
can help accelerate the transition to ZEVs both in
the United States and worldwide. Key topics for
international coordination include the following:
Coordination on international trade. MHDV freight
trucks play a major role in international overland
trade between the United States, Canada, and
Mexico, accounting for 55% of freight moved
between Canada and the United States and 71% of
freight between the United States and Mexico in
2022.475 Policies to enact ZEV adoption in one
country will affect cross-border trade with its
neighbors, requiring international coordination.
Canada is a signatory to the Global MOU
committing to 30% ZEV truck sales by 2030 and
100% by 2040. Through the Zero-Emission Trucking
Program, the Canadian government provides
funding and education to support the deployment
of ZE-MHDVs. While Mexico is not a Global MOU
signatory, the government has committed to 50%
zero-emission LP vehicle sales by 2030 and has
one of the largest public charging station
networks in Latin America.476
Establishing cross-border corridor infrastructure
is essential to enabling zero-emission cross-
border trade.477 Collaboration should occur on
station siting, design, and standards for
charging/refueling infrastructure along key cross-
border corridors, as well as on regulatory issues
such as GVWR standards for ZEVs. Financing
mechanisms, such as through the North American
Development Bank, may assist in addressing
barriers to infrastructure deployment along the
U.S.-Mexico border. Information exchanges
between countries can help address barriers to
transitioning to ZEVs. The United States-Mexico-
Canada Agreement, a free trade agreement
adopted in 2020, includes provisions for
cooperation "to address matters of mutual
interest with respect to air quality," including data
sharing, transparency, and cooperation on
pollution-control technologies and practices.478
International knowledge sharing can help countries
develop best practices to address issues such as
infrastructure deployment, grid management,
hydrogen, and sustainable liquid-fuel production
ecosystems, as well as develop supportive ZEV
policy environments. The U.S. government actively
participates in several international initiatives,
including the Electric Vehicles Initiative, a global
policy forum dedicated to accelerating BEV
adoption worldwide, and the Zero Emission Vehicles
Transition Council, a multinational political forum
aimed at accelerating the global transition to ZEVs.
These collaborations should be further
strengthened for MHDVs.
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6. NEXT STEPS - GETTING TO 2030
6.1 Core Strategic Plans and Milestones
Table 5 lays out near- and long-term national milestones, based on U.S. commitments in the Global MOU
and administration targets. Achieving these targets will require a whole-of-government approach using
multiple levers, including regulations, incentives, research and development, education and workforce
development, and strategic partnerships and outreach.
Table 5. MHDV Decarbonization Milestones, Now Through 2050
By
Milestone
MHDV
Subsector
Source
2030
30% of new MHDV sales nationwide
are zero-emission
All
Memorandum of Understandina on
Zero-Emission Medium- and Heavv-
Duty Vehicles fthe Global MOU)
2035
All federal fleet MHDV procurements
must be zero-emission
MHDVs used in
federal fleets
EO 14057
2040
100% of new MHDV sales nationwide
are zero-emission
All
Global MOU
2050
Full decarbonization of all on-road
MHDVs
All
Global MOU
To support these milestones, the MHDV Plan establishes two additional core objectives:
• Achieve cost parity by 2030 between new zero-emission long-haul heavy-duty trucks and existing
ICE long-haul trucks
• Through collaborative planning and public-private investments, realize 36% completion of the NHFN
by 2030 and close to 100% by 2040.
Interim milestones are needed to track progress toward supporting strategies to meet near- and long-
term decarbonization targets. These milestones are organized into four phases. In the near term (Phase 1;
before 2030), the MHDV Plan establishes the following milestones:
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By
Milestone
2025
• Establish vocation-specific ZEV component targets for batteries and fuel cells
• Develop monitoring and data-collection plan
2026
• Develop operating expense targets for electricity
• Develop metrics for assessing charging/refueling infrastructure adequacy along corridors
and in local/regional contexts
• Complete initial data collection on vehicle duty cycles, including nationally representative
data on daily mileage, dwell times, and auxiliary power demands across all MHDV
applications
• Host an MHDV charging infrastructure stakeholder workshop to promote collaboration
across stakeholders
• Finalize initial design for clean hydrogen production hubs and distribution networks
through DOE's Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs Program
2027
• Demonstrate long-haul ZEV operations and infrastructure on a real-world freight corridor
in partnership with industry and nonprofits
• Demonstrate prototypes for specialized vehicles and commercial pickups
• Complete Phase 1 of the Corridor Strategy—deploying charging at regional freight hubs
• Implement a public dashboard of indicators tracking progress toward goals
2028
• Meet the clean hydrogen levelized cost target of $7/kg (inclusive of production,
distribution, and dispensing)
Medium-term milestones (2030-2040) will build on prior actions to further technology and fuel progress,
expand infrastructure networks, and achieve ZE-MHDV sales targets consistent with the Global MOU and
administration commitments. In addition to the milestones listed above and core objectives for TCO parity
and corridor infrastructure deployment, these include the following milestones:
By
Milestone
2030
• Connect key zero-emission freight hubs (Phase 2 of the Corridor Strategy)
• Support industry in deploying long-haul ZEVs along corridor routes
• Support industry in deploying ZEVs in specialized applications and work trucks
2031
• Meet clean hydrogen levelized cost target of $4/kg (inclusive of production, distribution,
and dispensing)
2035
• Expand corridor connections between critical freight hubs (Phase 3 of the Corridor
Strategy)
• Scale sustainable liquid-fuel production to meet interim multimodal demands
Long-term milestones (2040 and beyond) will mark progress toward full ZEV adoption, 100% ZE-MHDV
sales (aligned with the Global MOU), full infrastructure deployment and corridor build-out, and
deployment of sustainable liquid fuels for legacy vehicles. These milestones will continue to evolve as the
market for MHDVs is reassessed in future years.
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By
Milestone
2040
• Achieve long-term DOE technology targets for batteries and fuel cells
• Complete the national zero-emission freight corridor infrastructure network (Phase 4 of
the Corridor Strategy)
2050
• Fully decarbonize the legacy fleet using sustainable liquid fuels and reach net-zero GHG
emissions
6.2 Federal Actions Now Through 2030
In line with the milestones listed above, significant federal actions will be needed in the near term (between
now and 2030) to lay the groundwork for long-term transitions. Figure 23 outlines the sequencing of actions
across core strategy areas: clean vehicles, fuels, and infrastructure (including ZEV technology deployment,
ZEV energy infrastructure deployment, and sustainable fuel production and distribution [encompassing
hydrogen production and distribution scale-up and sustainable liquid fuels]); improvement of system-wide
efficiency and convenience; and additional supporting actions. Three phases of action are envisioned,
encompassing near-term (before 2030), medium-term (2030-2040), and long-term (2040 and beyond)
actions. Additional longer-term actions after 2030 will be developed after assessment of the evolution of the
MHDV decarbonization landscape and consultation with stakeholders.
PHASE 1 ACTIONS (BEFORE 2030):
Near-term actions (before 2030) fall into several categories. First, under the Clean Fuels, Emerging
Technologies, and Infrastructure strategy area, efforts will focus on scaling ZE-MHDV and fuel production
and deployment in the most advanced market segments; conducting demonstrations, data collection,
and prototype development for market segments such as Long-Haul and Specialized Vehicles and Work
Trucks; and deploying charging/refueling infrastructure. These include the following actions:
Vehicles
• Support ZEV TCO reductions through administration of the significant IRA and BIL incentive
programs for vehicle purchase, fuel production, and manufacturing, with the aim of unlocking
economies of scale. This includes scaling production of sustainable fuels—clean hydrogen and
sustainable liquid fuels through established programs.
• Conduct research and development on advanced vehicle components and manufacturing
processes to meet operational requirements for additional market segments and further reduce
costs. As part of this process, conduct target setting for vehicle component cost and performance
across all MHDV market segments.
• Demonstrate and deploy ZEVs in additional market segments—including Long-Haul and
Specialized Vehicles and Work Trucks. This includes expanded data collection efforts on vehicle
duty cycles and technology and infrastructure needs.
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Strategies to enable clean vehicle and fuel conversion for all MHDV applications
NEAR-TERM MIDTERM LONG-TERM
(BEFORE 2030) (2030-2040) (2040 & BEYOND)
ZEV Technology Deployment
• Vehicle purchase incentives established by IRA & BIL
• Vehicle component R&D (cost, performance, and durability)
• Demonstrate prototypes for emerging market segments
(long-haul, specialized, and pickups)
• Manufacturing scale-up incentives established by IRA and BIL
1 ZEV Energy Infrastructure
• Support depot and regional charging/fueling infrastructure
deployment
• Phased build-out of national corridor infrastructure network
(2024-2040)
Sustainable Fuel Production and Distribution
• Develop technologies and feedstocks to enable drop-in
sustainable liquid fuel production
• Develop clean hydrogen production hubs and
distribution networks
• Support scale-up of cost-effective, high-volume clean
sustainable liquid fuel and hydrogen production pathway
1 Efficient Strategies
• Support improvements in operational efficiency
• R&D for improved vehicle efficiency
• Investments to support affordable access to efficient modes
1 Convenient Strategies
• Implement advanced freight movement planning solutions
• Support strategies to increase passenger bus ridership
Additional Supporting Actions
• EPA emission standards and NHTSA fuel economy standards
• Education & technical support for fleets, utilities, municipalities,
and other stakeholders
• Safety and standards development
• Workforce development and training
Figure 21. Core strategy areas and supporting actions to promote MHDV decarbonization
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Energy Infrastructure
• Streamline charging infrastructure deployment by supporting modernization and streamlining of
utility and permitting regulatory frameworks; promoting standardization; and supporting tool
development, stakeholder outreach, and education efforts.
• Demonstrate business cases for managed charging and VGI in support of electricity cost
reductions and improved VGI for BEVs.
• Support low-cost clean hydrogen production and scale-up through existing programs.
Convenient and Efficient
Efficient actions involve laying the groundwork for system-wide efforts to expand access to efficient
modes and to improve operational and vehicle-level efficiency. These include the following actions:
• Support tool development and analysis to assess multimodal investment priorities and further
refine near- and long-term targets, including modeling frameworks for freight and passenger
mode choice and multimodal operations.
• Encourage efficiency-improving measures to reduce idling at ports and intermodal locations and
ITS measures such as truck parking reservation systems, prioritizing air quality improvements in
disadvantaged communities.
• Conduct research on next-generation vehicle-level and operational efficiency improvements-
including advanced aerodynamics and materials lightweighting and truck platooning.
Near-term Convenient actions will require additional analysis and target setting to clarify MHDV strategic
priorities. These include the following:
• Support research quantifying the benefits of convenience investments to identify system-wide
emissions reduction potential from strategies such as improved siting, curbside demand
management, and travel demand management for passenger and freight operations.
• Finance Convenient passenger and freight projects through existing federal programs.
• Develop tools and provide technical assistance to communities implementing Convenient
strategies.
• Identify medium-term and long-term targets for Convenient strategies, in line with the findings
of the research agenda.
Finally, additional supporting actions will involve the following:
• Support ZEV workforce development and fleet education—including manufacturing and
maintenance training programs and education for fleets, drivers, utilities, and other stakeholders.
• Invest in domestic manufacturing and supply chains through existing federal programs.
• Support safety and standards development for ZEVs, fuels, and infrastructure.
• Advance community benefits through multimodal investments in zero-emission operations
(with particular emphasis on low-income communities and key freight hubs) and research on
expanded life cycle assessment and modeling capabilities to capture the impacts of ZE-MHDVs
more thoroughly and sustainable liquid-fuel deployment for GHG emissions and air quality, with
special attention to the distribution of benefits and costs for disadvantaged communities.
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Cross-cutting actions will also include the development of data collection and monitoring programs to
track progress along key MHDV decarbonization indicators.
Phase 2 medium-term and Phase 3 long-term actions (2030 to 2040 and 2040 and beyond) will build on
near-term programmatic efforts with the aim of expanding ZEV adoption from early-market to full-scale
production, reducing production costs and improving performance of vehicle components and fuels,
expanding ZEV adoption to new market segments, establishing regional and corridor infrastructure
networks, and supporting the long-term deployment of sustainable liquid fuels for legacy vehicles. They
will also include actions to pursue Convenient and Efficient programmatic efforts. Specific medium- and
long-term actions will remain flexible to changing MHDV market conditions and technology developments
and will be revisited in future editions of this MHDV Action Plan.
6.3 Funding and Financing
For Deployment
Funding and financing for ZE-MHDV purchases,
charging/refueling infrastructure, manufacturing
scale-up, and sustainable liquid-fuel production
are essential to enable early-market adoption and
scaling. Today's BEVs and FCEVs have higher up-
front costs than their diesel counterparts—
particularly those in heavier vehicle classes and
with longer ranges. While vehicle and
infrastructure costs are expected to come down
with increases in manufacturing volume,
streamlined supply chains, learning, market entry,
and further technology progress, financing and
funding are necessary in the near term to sustain
early markets and enable supply-side
investments to occur. The following are federal
funding and financing programs for ZE-MHDVs,
sustainable liquid fuels, energy infrastructure, and
other projects to improve system efficiency and
convenience.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
DOT administers many programs providing
funding for ports, transit buses, and investments in
zero-emission or clean infrastructure. For transit
buses, these include the Low or No Emission Grant
Program, which will provide $1.5 billion in 2024 to
state and local governments to purchase zero-
and low-emission transit buses, deploy supporting
infrastructure, and train workforces. Other DOT-
funded programs are not specifically focused on
ZEVs but may support ZEV purchases,
infrastructure investments, and investments in
transit buses. These include the FTA's Urbanized
Area Formula Grants, which provide funding to
public transportation agencies in urbanized areas
for a range of investments, including investments
in bus-related activities such as vehicle
replacements. The Neighborhood Access and
Equity Grant Program further allocates $3,155
billion for community investments in equity, safety,
and affordable transportation access, including
buses. The Capital Investment Grants Program
provides discretionary funding through FTA for
transit capital investments, including bus rapid-
transit programs. Finally, the Rebuilding American
Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity
discretionary grant program will allocate $1,845
billion to state and local projects for freight and
passenger transportation infrastructure.
Beyond buses, the Congestion Mitigation and Air
Quality Improvement Program provides funding to
state and local governments for projects to improve
air quality, including projects that fund the purchase
of zero-emission replacements for diesel MHDVs
and the installation of charging/refueling
infrastructure. The National Highway Freight
Program includes funding through 2026 for a range
of projects, including those that "reduce the
environmental impacts of freight movement on the
NHFN." Infrastructure-specific programs include the
NEVI formula program, which provides $1 billion in
funding to states annually through 2026 to invest in
public EV charging infrastructure (though a majority
of funding to date has focused on LDV
infrastructure). The CFI Discretionary Grant Program
offers a further $2.5 billion over 5 years to state and
local governments for projects that deploy BEV
charging or other alternative fueling infrastructure,
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including for MHDVs. The Carbon Reduction
Program provides $6.4 billion in funding over 5 years
for a range of projects, including investments in
truck stop electrification, public transportation,
congestion management, and electrification at
ports. DOT'S Reduction of Truck Emissions at Port
Facilities program provides $400 million over 5
years for projects to reduce truck-idling emissions
and improve operational efficiency, including
purchase of zero-emission trucks and installation of
charging infrastructure. Finally, the Port
Infrastructure Development Program, administered
by the Maritime Administration, provides
discretionary grant funding of up to $2.25 billion
over 5 years (through 2026) for projects, including
improving the efficiency of goods movement in, out,
and within ports. A compilation of DOT funding
programs related to reducing GHG emissions can
be found here.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA administers multiple programs to fund zero-
and low-emission vehicle adoption and reduce
emissions from diesel-powered vehicles. These
include the Clean School Bus Program, which
provides $5 billion between 2022 and 2026 to
replace school buses with zero-emission and
clean options, accompanied by funds for
infrastructure deployment and workforce training.
The Clean Ports Program includes an additional $3
billion to fund zero-emission port equipment
purchases, including drayage trucks. The Clean
Heavy-Duty Vehicles Grant Program includes $1
billion for the replacement of Class 6 and 7 non-
ZEVs with ZEVs. Finally, the Diesel Emissions
Reduction Act reauthorization allocates up to $100
million per year through 2024 for projects to
reduce diesel emissions from various sources.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
DOE administers several programs for funding and
financing of alternative-fueled vehicles and
infrastructure. These include LPO, which provides
loans to establish, expand, or re-equip facilities for
the manufacturing of qualified vehicles and
components through the Advanced Technology
Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program.
Manufacturers of battery cells and electrified
power train components, lightweighting materials,
BEV and FCEV charging, and fueling station
components, among others, are eligible for these
loans.479 LPO also provides financing through the
Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment program,
which supports projects such as replacing aging
and retired energy infrastructure with clean
infrastructure, and its Clean Energy Financing
program may finance the deployment of vehicles
as energy assets. Title 17 of the Clean Energy
Financing Program enables LPO to offer loan
guarantees for clean energy technologies,
including partial guarantees of commercial debt.
On fuel production, OCED oversees the Regional
Clean Hydrogen Hubs Program, which provides up
to $7 billion for projects involving the production,
delivery, storage, and end uses of clean hydrogen
in 6 to 10 regional hubs.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN
DEVELOPMENT
There are several HUD programs that may support
siting or development of location-efficient housing
adjacent to or in proximity to public transit,
including passenger bus services. Programs that
support the siting and development of affordable
housing in proximity to bus rapid-transit corridors,
multimodal transit centers, or passenger bus
routes include Federal Housing Administration-
insured multifamily mortgage insurance
programs; the Home Investment Partnerships
Program and Housing Trust Fund grants that are
awarded by formula to cities, counties, states, or
local consortia; and competitive grant programs
such as Choice Neighborhoods and Section 202
Supportive Housing for the Elderly.
STATE AND LOCAL FUNDING
Financing and grants are also available at state
and local levels. California HVIP offers point-of-
sale vouchers of between $7,500 and $120,000 for
purchases of low- and zero-emission Class 2B-8
commercial vehicles, including trucks and buses.
Voucher amounts may be adjusted based on fleet
size, technology type (reduced for hybrid and
remanufactured vehicles), operating location, and
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vehicle vocation. Additional programs include
financing and funding for small fleets through the
Innovative Small e-Fleet Program, which provides
vouchers for truck-as-a-service, leasing, and
peer-to-peer truck-sharing programs for small
fleets (20 vehicles or less), and the Zero-Emission
Truck Loan Pilot Project, which replaces previous
efforts to provide financing opportunities for
heavy-duty ZEVs and infrastructure for small
businesses. Other state point-of-sale voucher
programs compiled by CALSTART480 include the
New York Truck Voucher Incentive Program, the
New Jersey Zero-Emission Incentive Program.
Massachusetts Offers Rebates for Electric Vehicles
- Trucks, and the Drive Clean Chicago program.
Many vouchers include incentives of up to several
hundred thousand dollars for heavier vehicles;
programs vary on the funding amounts, vehicle
eligibility, and other criteria. Some states also have
non-voucher grant and incentive programs. AFDC
maintains a database of existing state laws and
incentives for zero- and low-emission vehicles,
including trucks.
ADDITIONAL FUNDING AND FINANCING NEEDS
Support for Small Fleets. Small fleets—those with
10 vehicles or less—are 90% of all registered
passenger and freight carriers and 44% of all
vehicles in the United States.481482 Many small
fleets report facing barriers to accessing ZEVs,
including limited information about their benefits
and availability, a lack of financial resources to
overcome high ZEV purchase costs, and a lack of
access to infrastructure. Resources and other
support could be directed to small fleets and
owners-operators to assist them in navigating
funding application processes. Programs should
approach small fleets during federal information-
gathering and solicitation efforts to ensure that
their voices are represented and their specific
concerns and barriers to accessing financing and
grants are addressed. Innovative financing
solutions offer another approach, such as
programs modeled after the California Air
Resources Board's Innovative Small e-Fleet
Program.
Infrastructure-Only Grants. While many funding
and financing programs provide support for ZEV
deployment including charging/refueling
infrastructure and vehicle purchases, fewer
opportunities exist for infrastructure-only projects.
The CFI Discretionary Grant Program is one such
program, providing $2.5 billion over 5 years to
deploy LD and MHDV charging and refueling
infrastructure. These dedicated infrastructure-only
funding programs can incentivize ZEV adoption by
providing confidence to fleets that needed
infrastructure will be available. Supporting
charging-as-a-service projects can also lower
market entry barriers for small fleets who use
these services in lieu of fleet-owned depots. Future
infrastructure grants could also consider future
funding opportunities aimed at private stations.
6.4 Policy and Regulatory
Opportunities and Gaps
Safety and Standards Development. Continued
research into and development of MHDV safety and
standards are needed, as described in section 5.5.
DOT is conducting ongoing stakeholder outreach to
better understand ZE-MHDV infrastructure needs,
including safety, station size, and parking and
vehicle size requirements. DOE also participates in
safety and standards research in partnership with
private actors.
Infrastructure Permitting Guidance and Utility
Regulatory Modernization. Federal guidance is
needed to help state and local governments plan
and permit new MHDV ZEV charging and refueling
stations. Needed guidance includes streamlined
permitting processes and timelines that can be
adopted by state and local governments, models
for updating planning codes to accommodate
zero-emission infrastructure, and technical
assistance. In addition, guidance is needed to
assist in modernizing utility regulatory frameworks
to enable needed investments in the electrical
grid to accommodate MHDVs. The federal
government can assist by providing guidance and
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support to state regulatory agencies and utilities, and by developing forecasting tools to help utilities in
better planning for future MHDV electricity demand.
6.5 Research, Analysis, and Data Needs
A wide-ranging research agenda will be needed to support this MHDV Plan's near- and long-term targets;
encompassing vehicle, infrastructure, and fuel technology development and production; Convenient and
Efficient operational innovations; and cross-sectoral planning and forecasting. Research products will
include improved technologies and manufacturing processes, tool development, and analysis products
to better inform stakeholders and future strategic plans.
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Table 6. Key Research Topics and Relationships to Strategy Priorities
Research Area
Key Topics
Relationship to Strategy
Vehicle, Infrastructure,
and Fuel Technologies and
Production Pathways
Technology development—vehicle and
infrastructure components and fuel
production processes, including
manufacturing innovations and scale-up
• Clean: reduce ZE/net-zero TCO,
improve vehicle availability, and
reduce emissions intensity of fuels
• Efficient: improve vehicle-level
efficiency
Recycling and end of life
• Clean: reduce emissions intensity of
fuels
Technoeconomic analysis and life cycle
assessment
• Clean: reduce ZE/net-zero TCO
Vehicle demonstration and deployment
• Clean: reduce ZE/net-zero TCO and
improve vehicle availability
Convenience, Efficiency,
and Operations
Multimodal operations and freight mode
choice
• Efficient: improve transportation
system efficiency
Vehicle duty cycles
• Clean: improve ZEV operational
suitability and support infrastructure
deployment
Managed charging and VGI
• Clean: reduce ZEV TCO, reduce
emissions intensity of fuels, and
deploy ZEV charging/refueling
infrastructure
Fleet logistics and operations
• Convenient: improve siting and
routing
• Efficient: improve fleet operational
efficiency
Energy infrastructure siting and network
development
• Clean: deploy ZEV
charging/refueling infrastructure
Cross-Sectoral Planning
and Forecasting
Forecasting and managing grid loads—
BEVs and hydrogen production
• Clean: reduce ZEV TCO, reduce
emissions intensity of fuels, and
deploy ZEV charging/refueling
infrastructure
Multimodal and multisectoral fuel and
feedstock supply and demand
• Clean: reduce ZE/net-zero TCO,
reduce emissions intensity of fuels
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VEHICLE, INFRASTRUCTURE, AND FUEL
TECHNOLOGIES AND PRODUCTION PATHWAYS
Continued research on improved vehicle and
infrastructure components, fuel production
technologies and feedstocks, and scalable
production pathways is core to achieving Clean
strategic priorities of reducing ZEV and net-zero
fuel TCO, improving vehicle availability and
operational suitability, and reducing the emissions
intensity of fuels. Vehicle component-level
research also meets Efficient aims of improving
energy efficiency within the MHDV mode. DOE is a
leading actor in pursuing this agenda, with several
programs already developed through various
offices. This research involves sustained
partnerships among the federal government,
national laboratories, academia, and industry.
Current research efforts are pursuing agendas on
advanced vehicle components, improved
infrastructure technologies, and improved
manufacturing processes, which are of primary
importance to improve the cost, performance,
efficiency, and durability of candidate technologies.
These include programs funded by VTO, HFTO, and
the Advanced Materials and Manufacturing
Technology Office. Key BEV-focused efforts include
improving current and next-generation battery
technologies, developing advanced battery
manufacturing processes, and developing the MCS.
Key FCEV research priorities include improving
present-day fuel cells' cost, efficiency, and durability;
exploring advanced fuel cell technologies: and
accelerating domestic manufacturing of fuel cells. In
addition to these programs, the 21st Century Truck
Partnership is another DOE-funded partnership that
conducts research and analysis across multiple
vehicle technologies, including drafting roadmaps
and establishing technology targets.
Research is also ongoing on improving component
recycling and reuse, which is necessary to reduce
the costs of critical materials and reduce
environmental impacts throughout the vehicle life
cycle. Such research is being conducted for
batteries as part of the United States Advanced
Battery Consortium's research efforts and the
Recovery and Recycling Consortium, which develops
methods for recycling and reusing clean hydrogen
materials and components.
Ongoing research and tool development for
technoeconomic and life cycle assessment is
funded through DOE programs and at national
laboratories. This research is needed to enable
identification of least-cost, lowest-emissions
solutions for sustainable liquid fuels, hydrogen
production pathways, and other processes.
Examples of tools include ANL's GREET model, which
assesses environmental and emissions impacts of
vehicle operations and fuel production pathways,
and various bioenergy models developed by
multiple national laboratories, which evaluate
biofuel production processes, cost, and emissions
across multiple pathways.
In addition to these programs, the following are key
research needs for vehicle, infrastructure, and fuel
technologies:
• Establish strategic partnerships to develop
and demonstrate ZEV prototypes for
commercial pickups and specialized vehicles.
• Establish strategic partnerships to
demonstrate long-haul MHDV and
infrastructure operations in real-world
corridors. The SuperTruck 3 Initiative includes
several projects aimed at demonstrating
longer-range ZEVs and high-speed charging
infrastructure.
• Expand target setting to establish ZEV
component cost and performance goals for a
broader range of MHDV applications. This
work is ongoing under the 21st Century Truck
Partnership.
• Continue research on improved vehicle
efficiency, including aerodynamics and
lightweighting, building on previous work
completed in the SuperTruck 2 program.
• Develop improved MHDV modeling tools with
the aim of conducting spatially resolved,
comprehensive life cycle analysis of the air
quality impacts of MHDV operations, fuel
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production, and vehicle production and end
of life. This is of particular importance to
improve assessment of the distribution of
benefits of ZE-MHDVs across disadvantaged
communities—and any costs that may fall on
communities due to upstream processes.
CONVENIENCE, EFFICIENCY, AND
VEHICLE OPERATIONS
A second core research agenda centers around
convenience, efficiency, and vehicle operations.
This includes supporting research on freight mode
choice; Convenient siting and land use; fleet
operational improvements, including optimizing
managed charging potential; and infrastructure
siting and network development.
Key priorities include the following:
• Improve data collection on vehicle
operations, including duty cycles, dwell times,
and vehicle survival and scrappage. Highly
resolved and nationally representative data
can serve multiple research aims, including
identifying energy demands for specialized
vehicles and work trucks, identifying hard-to-
decarbonize routes and operations,
developing fleet-facing tools to optimize
managed charging and depot charging
capacity, and forecasting future liquid fuel
demands from legacy fleets. A key priority of
data collection should be ensuring
standardization of reporting across sources
and vehicles, which will be necessary to
streamline analysis and ensure accuracy.
• Develop fleet-facing tools aimed at enabling
fleets to estimate payback times for ZEV
adoption, plan for charging infrastructure
needs and capacity requests (for BEVs), and
identify opportunities for managed charging
(for BEVs) and co-location of renewables and
storage (including for depot charging or on-
site hydrogen production).
• Develop improved models to assess mode
choice and multimodal operations in
passenger and freight modes. These models
will be needed to inform target setting and
investments in efficient multimodal actions.
• Improve infrastructure planning tools aimed
at forecasting the number of needed
charging/refueling infrastructure stations,
optimizing site locations, and forecasting
charging demands and grid impacts.
Examples of existing DOE-funded tools include
the HEVI-LOAD and EVI-X suite of modeling
tools aimed at forecasting BEV charging
demands, station locations, deployment
costs, and grid impacts. These tools should be
expanded to consider infrastructure needs for
wider ranges of MHDV vocations and
operational patterns. Additional tools aimed
at hydrogen infrastructure planning should
also be expanded.
• Improve land-use planning tools by
incorporating greater consideration of full
freight networks and better accounting for
freight externalities.
CROSS-SECTORAL PLANNING AND FORECASTING
Finally, research at the intersection of energy
production sectors and transportation modes can
improve understanding and planning for the
impacts of ZEV transitions. Core research needs
include research on grid impacts—including load-
forecasting tool development for utilities to assess
future demands from BEVs; electrified hydrogen
production pathways; and other end uses, such as
buildings. Research is also needed on sustainable
liquid fuel demands and production pathways
within the transportation sector and across other
end uses, particularly industry. Examples of currently
funded projects include DOE's EVGrid Assist initiative
aimed at developing tools to forecast MHD-BEV
adoption and charging loads to help utilities better
plan for future electrification. DOE-funded models
such as the Transportation Energy and Mobility
Pathway Options (TEMPO) model and the Bioenergy
Scenario Model developed by NREL may be used in
estimating whole-of-transportation liquid fuel
demands and implications for upstream biofuel
production pathways.
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6.6 Indicators of Progress
A robust monitoring and data collection agenda is
needed to track progress on core MHDV Plan
milestones and adapt to changing market
conditions. Table 7 lists key indicators to track this
progress. These indicators will monitor progress on
deployment of clean fuels and infrastructure, ZEV
deployment and operation, and progress toward a
sustainable and economic transition. The MHDV
Plan sets a milestone of developing a monitoring
and data collection plan by 2025 and
implementing a public dashboard of MHDV
indicators by 2027.
Expanded scope and frequency of data collection
will be needed to enable the development of
many indicators. Agency, industry, and national
laboratory partnerships should be leveraged to
expand existing monitoring programs and
implement new ones. A key priority is the
increased frequency of the Bureau of
Transportation Statistics' (BTS's) VIUS. which
provides crucial nationally comprehensive data
on MHDV operations and efficiency. Expanding the
VIUS survey frequency to every 3 years from the
current every 5 years would assist in monitoring
the indicators included in this plan. In addition,
expanding the survey to include automobiles,
buses, and government vehicles would provide a
more complete picture of the entire vehicle fleet
and offer crucial nationally comprehensive data
on MHDV operations and efficiency.
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Table 7. Indicators of Progress on MHDV Decarbonization
Strategy Area
Indicator
Cadence
Data Sources
Clean Fuels and
Infrastructure
Number and location of private and
publicly accessible zero-emission
charging/refueling stations; port counts
and charging speed (EVSE); capacity of
hydrogen stations; connectivity of
stations along freight corridor routes
Ongoing
Alternative Fuels Data Center
Clean hydrogen production volume;
carbon and pollutant intensity and
price; location, capacity, and type of
hydrogen production plants
Annual
DOE and industry partners
Carbon and pollutant emissions
intensity of the electric grid
Annual
EPA Emissions & Generation
Resource Integrated Database:
Energy Information Administration
(EIA)
Sustainable liquid-fuel production
volume, carbon and pollutant intensity
and price
Annual
EPA Renewable Fuel Standard
database
ZEV Deployment
Number of zero-emission MHDV sold by
vehicle class, body type, and
application (examples: freight, bus,
vocational); number of available MHDV
models
Annual
Transit buses: National Transit
Database
All other MHDVs: State and
industry partnerships needed to
collect data on all MHDV
registrations. Additional
partnerships will be needed to
collect data on third-party body
up-fits.
Zero-emission MHDV component cost
and performance data, including
MHDV-specific battery pack price and
energy density; hydrogen fuel cell and
onboard storage tank prices
Annual
DOE and industry partners
Domestic battery and fuel cell
production volume
Annual
DOE and industry partners
Activity, energy consumption, and
efficiency of the legacy and zero-
emission MHDV fleet (annual and daily
mileage, vehicle loads, and fuel
consumed per ton-mile transported)
Semiannual
(3 to 5
years)
BTS VIUS, with additional questions
on vehicle load and daily mileage
patterns and expanded scope to
include automobiles, buses, and
government vehicles
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Consumption of sustainable liquid fuels
by MHDVs
Annual
DOE-EIA partnership
Efficient
Transportation
Systems
Energy and emissions intensity per
passenger-mile and ton-mile of freight
moved
Semiannual
(3 to 5
years)
DOT, compiled through existing
cross-office data collection
programs
Sustainable and
Economic Transition
Number of zero-emission and
conventional vehicles operating near
ports, warehouses, and intermodal hubs
and near disadvantaged communities;
miles traveled by these vehicles
Annual
Partnerships with ports and
intermodal facilities on ZEV
drayage adoption and utilization
initiatives
Jobs created in development,
production, and maintenance of clean
vehicles, fuels, and infrastructure,
including those located in
disadvantaged communities
Annual
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Air quality changes in disadvantaged
communities attributable to the
deployment of zero-emission MHDVs
and supporting infrastructure and fuel
production, including addressing
secondary pollutant formation and
impacts for near-highway and
downwind communities
Biannual
Partnership with air quality
modeling teams at EPA and
national laboratories, in
consultation with DOT
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7. CONCLUSION
A Holistic, Comprehensive Approach
Transportation is the largest source of GHG
emissions and the second-largest household
expense. Decarbonizing the transportation sector
is integral to achieving a net-zero-emission
economy that benefits all communities. Moving
toward zero transportation GHG emissions is
critical not only for tackling climate change, but
also for the accompanying transformation of the
passenger and freight mobility systems toward
sustainable solutions and technologies that will
save lives and improve quality of life of all
Americans. It will increase U.S. competitiveness,
decrease household costs, increase economic
growth, reduce pollution, and increase
accessibility and community opportunities.
The historic MOU signed by DOE, DOT, EPA, and HUD
in September 2022 initiated collaboration across
the federal government to rapidly decarbonize
transportation. The agreement recognizes the
unique expertise, resources, and responsibilities of
each agency, setting the foundation for solutions
that are more innovative and far-reaching than
any of the agencies could achieve independently
The U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation
Decarbonization (Blueprint), the first step in this
collaboration, created a national vision for a
decarbonized transportation system. The Blueprint
embraced five core principles—initiate bold action;
embrace creative solutions across the entire
transportation system; ensure safety, equity,
and access; increase collaboration; and establish
U.S. leadership—to serve as the foundation for
all strategies.
The Blueprint provided a holistic, system-level
approach to decarbonizing the transportation
sector, proposing actions that address all aspects of
transportation GHG emissions, from land use
patterns and development to design of individual
vehicles. The Blueprint focused on three key
strategies—Convenience, Efficiency, and Clean—
which will support and complement each other in
achieving the goals of the Blueprint (see Figure 23).
Initiate bold
action
Embrace creative Ensure safety, equity, Increase Establish
solutions across the entire and access collaboration U.S. leadership
transportation system
tigure 22. The Blueprint's five principles
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o
til
Increase Convenience
by supporting community design and land-use planning at the
local or regional level that ensure that job centers, shopping,
schools, entertainment, and essential services are strategically
located near where people live to reduce commute burdens,
improve walkability and bikeability, and improve quality of life...
...Because every hour we don't spend sitting in traffic is an hour we
can spend focused on the things and the people we love, all while
reducing GHG emissions.
o
Improve Efficiency
by expanding affordable, accessible, efficient,
and reliable options like public transportation
and rail, and improving the efficiency of all
vehicles...
...Because everyone deserves efficient
transportation options that will allow them
to move around affordably and safely, and
because consuming less energy as we move
saves money, strengthens our national security,
and reduces GHG emissions.
Figure 23. Blueprint decarbonization strategies
o
Transition to Clean Options
by deploying zero-emission vehicles and fuels
for cars, commercial trucks, transit, boats,
airplanes, and more...
...Because no one should be exposed to air
pollution in their community or on their ride to
school or work and eliminating GHG emissions
from transportation is imperative to tackle the
climate crisis.
As part of the Clean strategy, the Blueprint
committed to developing specific mode-based
action plans for the light-duty vehicle, medium-
and heavy-duty vehicle, rail, maritime, off-road,
and aviation sectors to chart pathways to
accomplish this complex task over the next three
decades. The modal action plans propose near-
term, medium-term, and long-term actions to
achieve net-zero emissions in each of the different
modal sectors by 2050. This phased approach
leverages the historic federal BIL and IRA funding;
encourages deployment of scalable, market-
driven technologies; provides industry and
stakeholders with certainty about transforming
the transportation sector; recommends planning
and proposes policy opportunities at multiple
levels of government; and promotes expanded
RDD&D to support innovative approaches to
decarbonize the transportation sector, including
new technologies and fuels. The phased actions
across all modes are summarized below.
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Actions over the near-term (initiated before 2030)
involve leveraging IRA and BIL incentives to
support the deployment of ZEVs in early MHD
markets and expand their market share in
passenger (LD) vehicles. Billions of dollars in
transportation tax credits, infrastructure, and
supply chain investments are currently being
made throughout the United States through BIL
and IRA funds. The Blueprint outlined the critical
need to develop energy refueling infrastructure,
particularly critical freight hubs. After the release
of the Blueprint, the U.S. National Zero-Emission
Freight Corridor Strategy was developed and
released. This plan outlined the phased approach
of critical EV charging and hydrogen fueling
networks. Work must continue with utilities, utility
regulators, and other grid stakeholders to ensure
a balance of needs for electrification. There is a
critical need to scale up ZEV component
manufacturing and fuel production incentivized
by IRA tax credits, including domestic tax credits
for the manufacturing of batteries, hydrogen
production tax credits, and biofuels for legacy
vehicles. The United States will also need to
expand production of biofuels and hydrogen to
further support the harder-to-decarbonize sectors
of rail, maritime, and off-road. Engaging in further
research, data collection, demonstrations, and
outreach for future ZEV deployments will be
essential for expansion into additional market
segments. International leadership will continue
to play a critical role in building out international
infrastructure and standards for aviation, rail, and
maritime, and for facilitating the deployment of
cross-border corridor infrastructure for ZE-MHDVs.
These actions will set the foundation for future
actions to fully decarbonize the transportation
system by 2050.
Medium-term actions (2030 to 2040) will need to
focus on finalizing and ensuring BIL and IRA
investments are fully leveraged. Transitioning
demonstrations to market technologies will be
essential during this timeframe. The United States
will need to expand ZEV adoption from early-
market to full-scale production and new market
segments. This will include further establishing
regional and international corridors and
intermodal infrastructure networks for passenger,
freight, maritime, off-road, and rail fueling
networks and scaling and supporting
investments in zero and low-emission vessels and
vehicles. Implementing EPA's emissions
standards and NHTSA's Corporate Average Fuel
Economy Standards through MY 2032 will continue
the deployment and adoption of ZEVs in the light-,
medium-, and heavy-duty sectors. Medium-term
actions may also involve future rulemaking and
legislative efforts in these sectors.
Long-term actions (2040 and beyond) will be
responsive to market developments and will likely
include expanding ZEV and low-emission vessel
and vehicle adoption to all market segments, as
well as achieving full build-out of corridor energy
infrastructure for all modes, both domestically and
internationally. Realizing cost reductions in ZEVs to
reach parity with ICEVs, as well as supporting
sustainable liquid-fuel adoption for legacy
vehicles, will be essential. Production and
bunkering of zero- and low-emission fuels will
need to expand and scale for use in the aviation,
maritime, and off-road sectors. Long-term actions
may also involve future rulemaking and legislative
efforts in these sectors.
An Action Plan for Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicle Energy and
Emissions Innovation
The action plan for MHDVs summarizes strategies
and actions to nearly eliminate GHG emissions in
the U.S. commercial on-road MHDV sector and
reduce or eliminate emissions of criteria
pollutants, prioritizing communities facing the
largest air pollution impacts. In the near term, the
plan proposes strengthened and continued
development of ZE-MHDV power trains (i.e.,
battery-electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles),
coupled with incentives to reduce costs, scale
manufacturing, and accelerate ZEV and
infrastructure deployment in established market
segments and demonstrate viability in emerging
market segments. We must also continue to make
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investments in zero-emission energy
infrastructure at depots and regional hubs, as well
as leverage opportunities to use available low-
carbon liquid drop-in fuels. Near-term goals are
established of achieving cost parity between
long-haul freight ZEVs and ICEVs by 2030 and
realizing 36% completion of the NHFN by 2030 and
close to 100% by 2040. Long-term solutions must
focus on a full transition to ZEVs across all MHDV
applications, a full build-out of the ZEV national
corridor network, and support for sustainable
liquid fuels for legacy vehicles and hard-to-
decarbonize operations, especially in remote
areas. We also need to implement actions and
strategies to improve system-wide convenience
and efficiency of freight and passenger
movement across modes. In addition, there are
several cross-cutting actions across all action
plans in support of the Blueprint: develop a
framework to collect the data necessary to track
progress with the decarbonization objectives,
support development of the workforce needed to
manufacture and maintain new vehicle
technologies and infrastructure, and decarbonize
the national electricity grid.
Call to Action
Transforming the MHD sector, other transportation
modes, and the entire national transportation
system over the next three decades will be a
complex endeavor, but by taking a
comprehensive and coordinated approach, it is a
challenge that we can, and must, solve. The
strategies presented in these action plans identify
unique opportunities and will be most effective if
decision-makers, acting quickly and in concert,
continually increase the ambitions of their actions,
collaboration, and investments. There is no one
technology, policy, or approach that will solve our
transportation challenges unilaterally; we need to
develop, deploy, and integrate a wide array of
technologies and solutions to ensure we achieve
our 2030 and 2050 goals.
In addition to leadership at the federal level,
reaching these ambitious climate goals will
require collaboration with all levels of government,
industry, communities, and nonprofit
organizations. The action plans are intended to
send a strong signal to our partners and other
stakeholders to use the documents as guideposts
and frameworks to support and complement their
own planning and investments and to coordinate
actions in each sector. We will continue to set bold
targets for improving our transportation systems
and transitioning to zero-emission vehicles,
vessels, and fuels on a timeline consistent with
achieving economy-wide 2030 and 2050
emissions reduction goals. As we decarbonize our
transportation system, we can create a more
affordable and fair transportation system that will
provide multiple benefits to all Americans for
generations to come. It will be important to
continually evaluate and update our actions as
technology and policy continue to evolve, and to
continue to strengthen the collaborations among
DOE, DOT, EPA, HUD, and all our partners. Together,
we must act decisively now to provide better
mobility options, address inequities, and offer
affordable and clean mobility solutions to ensure
the health of the planet for future generations. It is
up to all of us to make that vision a reality and
move forward with creative and innovative
solutions toward a better future for all.
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ACRONYM LIST
AB
assembly bill
AEO
Annual Energy Outlook
AFDC
Alternative Fuels Data Center
ANL
Argonne National Laboratory
BETO
Bioenergy Technologies Office
BEV
battery-electric vehicle
BIL
Bipartisan Infrastructure Law
BT23
2023 Billion-Ton Report
BTF
behind-the-fence
BTS
Bureau of Transportation Statistics
Btu
British thermal unit
CAP
criteria air pollutant
CI
carbon intensity
CNG
compressed natural gas
CO
carbon monoxide
CO-Optima
Co-Optimization of Fuels & Engines
DCFC
direct current fast-charging
DER
distributed energy resource
DOE
U.S. Department of Energy
DOT
U.S. Department of Transportation
DWPT
dynamic wireless power transfer
EIA
Energy Information Administration
EMC
electromagnetic compatibility
EO
executive order
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
ePTO
electric power takeoff
ESB
electric school bus
EV
electric vehicle
EVITP Electric Vehicle Infrastructure
Training Program
EVSE electric vehicle supply equipment
FCEV fuel cell electric vehicle
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FOG fat, oil, and grease
FTA Federal Transit Administration
GHG greenhouse gas
GHGI Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Emissions and Sinks
GIS geographic information system
GREET Greenhouse gases, Regulated
Emissions, and Energy use in
Technologies
GVWR gross vehicle weight rating
H2ICE hydrogen internal combustion
engine
HD heavy-duty
HDPUV heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans
HVIP Hybrid and Zero-Emission Truck
and Bus Voucher Incentive Project
ICCT International Council on Clean
Transportation
ICE internal combustion engine
ICEV internal combustion engine vehicle
IIJ A Infrastructure Investment and Jobs
Act
IRA Inflation Reduction Act
ITS intelligent transportation system
L2 Level 2
LD light-duty
LDV light-duty vehicle
LNG liquified natural gas
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LPO Loan Programs Office
MCS Megawatt Charging System
MD medium-duty
MHD medium- and heavy-duty
MHD-BEV medium- and heavy-duty battery-
electric vehicle
MHDV medium-and heavy-duty vehicles
MMT CChe million metric tons of carbon
dioxide equivalent
MOU memorandum of understanding
MW megawatt
MY model year
NACFE North American Council for Freight
Efficiency
NEI National Emissions Inventory
NEVI National Electric Vehicle
Infrastructure
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NH3 ammonia
NHFN National Highway Freight Network
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration
NOx nitrogen oxide
NREL National Renewable Energy
Laboratory
NTD National Transit Database
OCED Office of Clean Energy
Demonstrations
OEM original equipment manufacturer
PEM polymer electrolyte membrane
PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
PM particulate matter
RD renewable diesel
RD&D research, development, and
demonstration
RDD&D research, development,
demonstration, and deployment
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAF sustainable aviation fuel
SO2 sulfur dioxide
TOO total cost of ownership
TEMPO Transportation Energy and Mobility
Pathway Options
TWO Transit Workforce Center
TWh terawatt-hour
UNECE United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe
U.S. United States
USG U.S. government
V2G vehicle-to-grid
V2X vehicle-to-everything
VGI vehicle-grid integration
VIUS Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
VMT vehicle-miles traveled
VOC volatile organic compound
VTO Vehicle Technologies Office
WRI World Resources Institute
ZEV zero-emission vehicle
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APPENDIX A: VEHICLE TYPES AND
VOCATIONS
Table Al. MHDV Vehicle Class by Gross Vehicle Weight Rating; Source: Environmental Protection Agency483
Vehicle Class
Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (Pounds)
Class 2B
8,501 to 10,000
Class 3
10,001 to 14,000
Class 4
14,001 to 16,000
Class 5
16,001 to 19,500
Class 6
19,501 to 26,000
Class 7
26,001 to 33,000
Class 8
33,001 and above
Table A2. MHDV Body Type Definitions. Source: Argonne National Laboratory484
Body Type
Definition
Single-Unit Truck
Class 7/8 vehicle used to transport goods, construction materials, and other
equipment. These vehicles feature a single cargo area on a chassis with a cabin area
for the driver.
Combination Truck (also
known as "tractor-trailer")
Class 7/8 vehicle with one or more trailers towed by a tractor. These vehicles are
used in intercity and interstate transportation of goods.
Cargo Van
Class 2B/3 vehicle used for short-distance transportation of goods in suburban and
urban areas. The size, shape, and design of the van can be customized to fit certain
needs.
Pickup
Class 2B/3 vehicle used for personal and commercial hauling. Class 2B vehicles are
primarily used for light hauling, carrying passengers, and towing recreational
products. Class 3 vehicles are primarily used to transport landscaping and
construction materials.
Step Van
Class 2B vehicle used for parcel delivery. The vehicle is designed for ease of
maneuverability in urban settings and allows for the driver to access cargo
efficiently.
Box Truck
Class 3-6 vehicle used for transportation of large cargo, often including furniture.
These vehicles feature a large, enclosed cargo area on a chassis.
Utility Truck (also known
as "Bucket Truck")
Class 5 vehicle with a hydraulic arm used to elevate service workers for aerial work.
The arm is built into the chassis of a pickup truck.
Refuse Truck
Class 7 vehicle designed to collect, compact, and dispose of waste.
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Dump Truck
Class 8 vehicle that carries dirt, debris, and other loose materials. These vehicles are
often used at construction sites.
Intercity Bus
Class 8 passenger vehicle designed to shuttle large numbers of passengers between
cities or regions.
Transit Bus
Class 7/8 passenger vehicle designed to maneuver through urban and suburban
areas. These vehicles provide regular transportation services.
School Bus
Class 6/7 passenger vehicle used to shuttle students to and from academic
institutions. Smaller vehicles are built on a Class 3 chassis.
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APPENDIX B: BIOFUELS' ROLE
IN DECARBONIZING THE
TRANSPORTATION SECTOR
Context
Historically, the U.S. transportation sector has
overwhelmingly relied on liquid petroleum-based
fuels, which supplied over 90% of its energy needs
in 2022.485 The U.S. Transportation Decarbonization
Blueprint laid out a bold plan to move the
transportation sector to net-zero emissions, using
a range of low-GHG fuels, including electrification,
hydrogen, and liquid fuels from biomass and other
waste carbon resources, such as C02 and food
waste (referred to here collectively as "biofuels").
Biofuels already contribute to on-road light-,
medium-, and heavy-duty transportation on the
order of billions of gallons, driven by decades of
U.S. policy objectives such as energy security,
clean air, lead-free octane enhancement of
gasoline, climate change mitigation, and rural
economic development. The Blueprint identifies
aviation as the transportation sector with the
greatest long-term opportunity for biofuels, as
aviation is limited in low-GHG options. Due to
biofuel compatibility with existing fleets and
fueling infrastructure, biofuels will play an
important role in reducing carbon emissions
across all modes during the transition to zero-
emission solutions. In particular, biofuels will be
important in decarbonizing the legacy fleet in the
rail, marine, and off-road sectors due to long
equipment lifetime and slow fleet turnover in these
modes. The Blueprint also recognizes that biofuels
will play a supporting role where electrification
and hydrogen may not be as practical.
Successfully managing these competing
demands for biofuels will be a key challenge going
forward. Converting bioenergy from one sector to
another does not automatically reduce
transportation GHG emissions unless the first
sector is reduced or carefully replaced with
another energy source. More biofuels beyond
current production are needed. To avoid direct
land-use actions such as converting to more
agricultural land for producing corn and soybeans
currently used for biofuels, a critical near-term
action within approximately 10 years for biofuels is
to pivot to accessing unused and underused
biomass already available, which is estimated at
around 350 million dry tons per year, including
over 130 million dry tons of agricultural residues,
over 170 million dry tons of a variety of wastes, and
over 30 million dry tons of forestland resources.486
The United States Aviation Climate Action Plan
establishes a goal of net-zero emissions from U.S.
aviation by 2050. The SAF Grand Challenge
establishes a goal of, by 2030,3 billion gallons of
sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) that achieves at
least a 50% reduction in emissions on a life cycle
basis and 35 billion gallons by 2050.487 The SAF
Grand Challenge Roadmap,488 which was
developed by USG agencies with extensive input
from researchers, nongovernmental organizations,
and industry, outlines a whole of-government
approach with coordinated policies and activities
that should be undertaken by federal agencies to
achieve both the 2030 and 2050 goals. In the SAF
Grand Challenge Roadmap, the vast majority of
the policies and activities focus on the needs for
innovation in feedstock and conversion
technologies that are largely agnostic to fuel type.
As discussed in the action plans, decarbonizing
maritime freight may require large volumes of
methanol, decarbonizing noncommercial
maritime vessels may require significant volumes
of green gasoline, and decarbonizing the off-road,
rail, and long-haul heavy-duty modes may
require large volumes of biomass-based diesel.
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The Blueprint recognizes that biofuels will play a
leading role for aviation decarbonization while
playing a supporting role for decarbonizing other
transportation sectors.
In addition to the Blueprint, the U.S. goals and
strategies for biofuels are also driven by the National
Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing Initiative and
coordinated through the National Bioeconomy
Board. This appendix seeks to complement modal
plans by summarizing USG goals and strategies for
biofuels that are not specific to individual modes of
transportation and thus not fully integrated within
specific modal plans.
Biofuels Background
The United States is the world's largest biofuels
producer, producing 15 billion gallons of ethanol
and over 3 billion gallons of biomass-based diesel
in 2022.489 These fuels are typically blended into
gasoline and diesel, respectively, for use in on-
road transportation. Most U.S. ethanol is produced
from fermentation of cornstarch. U.S. biomass-
based diesel is currently produced via either
hydroprocessing, co-processing, or
transesterification and uses lipid feedstocks that
include oilseeds (e.g., soy, canola) and waste fats,
oils, and greases (FOGs), such as used cooking oil.
While the United States has these domestic
supplies of biofuels, the supply is far from sufficient
to satisfy the energy needs of the entire U.S.
transportation sector.
Maximizing the impact of biofuels in support of the
Blueprint will require expanding biofuels
production, primarily through new feedstocks and
production pathways. Government support will
continue to play an important role in developing
technologies, building supply chains, and scaling
up biofuels production to meet the need for low-
carbon liquid fuels. Policy and regulation at the
federal and state levels have played and will
continue to play a critical role for biofuels
production in the United States to drive down CI
and expand production.
Domestic Resource Potential for
Biofuel Production
Currently, most biofuels in the United States are
produced from corn and soybean planted on
agricultural land. It is important for the U.S.
agricultural system to prioritize its most productive
land to produce food, feed, and fiber. Therefore,
there are limits to the amount of agricultural land
that can be used for biofuel production to meet
the energy demands of our transportation sector.
While productivity improvements can increase the
amount of biofuel feedstock produced from the
same acreage, these gains are modest in
comparison to the needs for biofuels expansion.
USDA projects 2% annual yield improvements for
corn and 0.5% yield improvements for soy over the
next 10 years.490 The deployment of intermediate
oilseeds that are planted and harvested in
between these cash crop rotations could also
sustainably expand lipid feedstock supply that
can be converted using commercially ready
technologies to increase production of SAF and
biomass-based diesel with little impact on land
use.491 However, in order to support
decarbonization, domestic biofuels production
must expand primarily through the use of new
feedstocks resources that are not grown on prime
agricultural land.
The 2023 Billion-Ton Report (BT23) estimates the
United States has the capacity to sustainably and
economically produce 1.3 to 1.5 billion tons of
biomass and organic wastes per year in the
future, over triple the amount the current U.S.
bioeconomy utilizes today.492 These resources
include:
• Agricultural residues (e.g., corn stover, wheat
straw) from the production of food, grain, and
fiber
• Wastes, including animal manure;
wastewater sludge; inedible FOGs; sorted
municipal solid waste including unrecyclable
paper/cardboard waste, yard waste, and
food waste; and landfill gas
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• Forest thinnings from small-diameter trees
that need removal to increase forest health
and reduce wildfire potential, and logging
and mill processing residues
• Purpose-grown energy crops (e.g., perennial
grasses, fast-growing trees) that can be
grown on less productive land with improved
environmental performance and lower
carbon-intensity than traditional agricultural
production.
Because biomass production potential is
contingent upon market pull, the BT23 presents
production capacity by market scenario. One
scenario presented in the BT23 is the "near-term
scenario", which illustrates resources that exist
today" (and in 2030). This includes 350 million tons
per year of unused biomass (including -250
million tons per year of cellulosic biomass) in
addition to the -340 million tons of biomass
currently used for energy and coproducts (Figure
Bl). The mature-market scenarios, adding -440-
800 million tons more biomass, include energy
crops, which will not be fully deployed by the 2030
SAF target. However, the 2030 SAF target of 3 billion
gallons per year would require 50-60 million tons
of biomass per year0, which is merely -15% of the
Near term scenario untapped production
capacity. (See BT23 Figure ES-1 and Table ES-2).
" Near-term presents resources that are annually available ° At an assumed average conversion rate of 55 gallons of
(within specified environmental constraints, at specified prices, biofuels per ton.
and available for collection).
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30
28
26
24
22
20
c 18
o
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
16
2 14
CL
a
a
2 12
m
1,000
t:
5 800
10
600
400
200
1,749M
Resources
available by
2030 SAFgoal
~Ag. residues
~Ag. proc. waste $40
'Small dia. $59
»Oth. for. wa. $50
*Log. res. $40
'For. proc. wa. $54
"Plastic
"Paper
*Other wet
xOth. sol. $16
xLandfill gas
"FOG $580
342M
$110 $110 $130 $130
$220 $220 $230 $230
$29 $29 $40 $40
oMacroalgae
• Microalgae
winter, oilseeds $400
^Energy crops, woody
^Energy crops,
herbaceous
~Ag. residues
~Ag. proc. waste $40
iSm. dia. trees $70
*Other forest waste $50
¦'Log residues $40
^Forest proc. waste $54
"Plastic
"Paper and cardboard
"Other wet
"Other solid
-"FOG - $660
-*MSW/other waste
~Forestry/wood
-~Agricultural
Currently i Near- i Mature- Mature- Mature- Emerging
used for ' term 1 market market market
energy L " J low medium high
U.S. Energy Production
100"
Crude oil
Natural gas (liquids)
Natural gas (dry)
Geothermal
$olar
Hydroelectric
Wind
[ Macroalgae
| Microalgae
| Ag. Energy crops
| Ag. Residues and wastes
| Forestland
| Wastes
Currently used for energy
Figure Bl. Estimated biomass production capacity of the US. The near-term scenario is highlighted, which identifies production
capacity in 2030, including 235 million tons per year of unused cellulosic biomass resources. (Source: USDOE 2023 Figure ES-1493.)
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USG Goals and Strategies for Biofuels
The U.S. Transportation Decarbonization Blueprint
prescribed five guiding principles to guide future
policymaking and research, development,
demonstration, and deployment in the public and
private sectors, which are exemplified by the USG's
coordinated approach and leadership on biofuels:
• Implement bold actions to achieve
measurable results.
• Embrace creative solutions across the
entire transportation system.
• Ensure safety, equity, and access.
• Increase collaboration.
• Establish U.S. leadership.
The USG has a long history of biofuels coordination
since the Biomass Research and Development Act
of 2000. Since then, the Biomass R&D Board has
coordinated biofuels-related activities to advance
a range of policy objectives, including climate
change, energy security, domestic manufacturing
and competitiveness. In recent years, these efforts
have been driven by the National Biotechnology
and Biomanufacturing Initiative and the SAF Grand
Challenge with the mutual objectives of increasing
domestic production of biofuels and improving
the CI of biofuels production.
Federal government agencies developed a series
of Bold Goals for U.S. Biotechnology and
Biomanufacturing R&D in March 2023,494 which
include several goals that align with the U.S.
Transportation Decarbonization Blueprint. These
goals focus on expanding the availability and
sustainability of feedstocks for the production of
biofuels and increasing the production of SAF and
biofuels for other hard-to-decarbonize modes of
transportation.
Bold Goals for U.S. Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing R&D:
GOAL 1.1 Expand Feedstock Availability - In 20 years, collect and process 1.2 billion metric tons of
conversion-ready, purpose-grown plants and waste-derived feedstocks and utilize >60 million
metric tons of exhaust gas C02 suitable for conversion to fuels and products, while minimizing
emissions, water use, habitat conversion, and other sustainability challenges.
GOAL 1.2 Produce SAF - In 7 years, produce 3 billion gallons of SAF with at least 50% (stretch 70%)
reduction in GHG life cycle emissions relative to conventional aviation fuels, with production rising to
35 billion gallons in 2050.
GOAL 1.3 Develop Other Strategic Fuels - In 20 years, develop technologies to replace 50% (>15 billion
gallons) of maritime fuel, off-road vehicle fuel, and rail fuel with low net GHG emission fuels.
GOAL 3.1 Develop Measurement Tools for Robust Feedstock Production Systems - In 5 years, develop
new tools for measurement of carbon and nutrient fluxes in agricultural and bioeconomy feedstock
systems that contribute to a national framework.
GOAL 3.2 Engineer Better Feedstock Plants - In 5 years, engineer plants and manipulate plant
microbiomes to produce drought-tolerant feedstocks capable of growing on underutilized land with
>20% improvement in nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency.
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STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE NEAR-TERM
BIOFUEL GOALS
BT23 estimates there are 350 million dry short tons
per year of biomass above current uses that are
near-term opportunities that could be accessible
for biofuels in the next 5-10 years. Some of these
resources, such as wastes, are already collected
but then landfilled. Others, such as agricultural
residues and timberland resources, exist in fields
and forests but must be collected for use. Most of
this near-term biomass is lignocellulosic.
Technologies to produce liquid fuels from
lignocellulosic biomass have not been fully
derisked. Given the significant lead time required
for biofuels production infrastructure to be built,
the path to meeting near-term goals focuses on
actions to scale the harvesting/collection and
scaling of these resources and the production
facilities that can turn them into biofuels as quickly
as practicable. These actions include:
• Demonstrate new biofuel pathways that can
produce biofuels from additional feedstocks
beyond lipids and starch.
• Build and support stakeholder coalitions
through outreach, extension, and education
to set the stage for biofuel feedstock and
biofuel supply chains to develop and sustain
themselves and replicate with continuous
improvement.
• Increase deployment of alternative lipid
feedstocks including intermediate oilseeds
that can be readily converted to SAF and
biomass-based diesel through commercially
available conversion technologies.3
• Improve the CI of biofuels production using
commercially available feedstocks and
infrastructure.
• Develop improved environmental models and
data for biofuels to support optimization of
existing policies and implementation of new
policies that could be enacted.
• Inform biofuels policy development with
analysis of gaps and impacts of policies
under consideration.
• Stakeholder outreach and engagement on
sustainability to exchange data and
information about best practices to reduce
lifecycle GHG emissions from agricultural and
forest-derived feedstocks and optimize other
environmental and social impacts.
• Enable use of drop-in unblended biofuels and
biofuel blends up to 100% to simplify blending
requirements, reduce cost of logistics, and
facilitate supply.
STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE LONG-TERM
BIOFUEL GOALS
The path to meeting long-term biofuel and
decarbonization goals requires a continuing focus
on innovation, including research, development,
and demonstration (RD&D) of new feedstock and
conversion technologies, increasing production
capacity with continued progress in cost
reductions and CI. This effort occurs
simultaneously with the near-term strategies
above such that these innovations can be
demonstrated and scaled by 2050. Technologies
in this portfolio are expected to result in a
dramatic build-out and expansion of alcohol,
waste-based, lignocellulosic, and waste and
captured carbon gas pathways.
• Conduct RD&D on scaling and sustainability
of biomass, waste, and residue feedstocks to
enable innovations in technologies and
strategies that increase the availability of
purpose-grown energy crops, wastes, and
agricultural and forestry residues at reduced
CI and cost. This includes addressing the
social, environmental, and economic
sustainability aspects of feedstock supply
chains.
• Conduct RD&D on feedstock logistics and
handling reliability to increase efficiencies
and decrease cost and CI of supply logistics
from the producer's field to the conversion
facility door.
• De-risk scale-up through R&D and integrated
piloting of critical pathways by 2030 to
accelerate fuel conversion technology scale-
up and improve financeability of critical
conversion pathways that utilize the full
potential of an expanded feedstock supply.
• Model and demonstrate sustainable regional
supply chains for critical pathways by 2035 to
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promote commercialization of biofuel supply
chains through process validation and risk
reduction via access to critical data and tools
that empower rapid, informed decision
making when evaluating biofuel supply
chain options.
• Build and support regional stakeholder
coalitions through outreach, extension, and
education to continue to expand a biofuels
industry that improves environmental and
economic performance while supporting job
creation and social equity in multiple regions
of the country.
• Continue to invest in industry deployment to
help overcome barriers to project financing
through creative financing, government loans
and loan guarantees, and outreach.
• Continue to inform biofuel policy
development to enable aligned policy
incentives that will support long-term biofuel
deployment.
Conclusion
Biofuels will play an important role in reducing
carbon emissions across all modes of
transportation, whether as a long-term
decarbonization strategy or as a transition to
zero-emission solutions. USG agencies have
identified goals and strategies to improve CI and
sustainability of biofuels and to expand biofuels
production—particularly through developing
supply chains and technology necessary to
produce biofuels from purpose-grown energy
crops, wastes, and agricultural and forest residues.
While USG has placed a priority on producing
biofuels for aviation due to the lack of alternative
low-GHG options, it will be important to
periodically assess fleet turnover and zero-
emission vehicle adoption rates across various
modes of transportation to inform the optimal
allocation of biofuels across these modes to
maximize the GHG benefits of biofuel use.
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APPENDIX C: MORE DETAIL ON SELECTED
DECARBONIZATION ACTIONS
Table CI. Announced Vehicle Manufacturer Decarbonization Commitments (Based on information compiled by
CALSTART.495 and updated with more recent data. All commitments current as of June 11,2024.)
Organization
Commitment
Target Year
Cummins Inc.
25% reduction in Scope 3 absolute lifetime emissions from newlv
2030
sold products
Daimler Truck North
America
Offer onlv new vehicles that are carbon dioxide equivalent
2039
(CO?e)-neutral in drivina operation ("from tank to wheel")
Ford Motor Company
Reduce Scope 3 areenhouse aas (GHG) emissions from use of
2035
sold products 50% per vehicle-kilometer (relative to a 2019
baseline)
General Motors
Reduce Scope 3 GHG emissions from use of sold products 51%
2035
per vehicle-kilometer (relative to a 2018 baseline)
Hyundai
30% electrification of all vehicles sold bv 2030 and 100% bv 2045
2030/2045
Isuzu
Net-zero GHG emissions across entire life cvcle of Isuzu Group
2050
products
Navistar
50% zero-emission new vehicle sales bv 2030 and 100% bv 2040
2030/2040
PACCAR
Reduce Scope 3 emissions bv 25% from a base vear of 2018 (on a
2030
aram CO?e/vehicle-kilometer basis)
Volvo Group
Reduce truck and bus Scope 3 emissions bv 40% on a per-
2030
vehicle-kilometer basis
Clean Truck
Partnership*
Meet California's vehicle standards that will require the sale and
n/a
adoption of zero-emission technoloav in the state, reaardless of
anv attempts bv other entities to challenae California's authority
~Includes Cummins Inc., Daimler Truck North America, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Company,
Hino Motors Limited Inc., Isuzu Technical Center of America Inc., Navistar Inc., PACCAR Inc., Stellantis N.V.,
Truck and Engine Manufacturers Association, and Volvo Group North America.
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APPENDIX D: MARKET SEGMENTATION
AND EMISSIONS ACCOUNTING
MHDV Market Segmentation
Except for buses, medium- and heavy-duty vehicle (MHDV) market segments were defined based on an
assessment of the 2021 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS)496 based on a combination of vehicle
class, body type, and operating characteristics. Table D1 shows resulting vehicle population and vehicle-
miles traveled (VMT). Personal Class 2B and 3 vehicles were excluded from this report. Initial 2022 bus
population and VMT estimates were gathered from separate sources.
Table Dl. Commercial MHDV Population and Operating Statistics by Class and Market Segment (Non-bus
population data were scaled to 2022 using growth rates from the Annual Energy Outlook.437)
Vehicle Class
Market Segment
2022 Vehicle
Population
(Million)
Average Annual
VMT (Miles/Vehicle)
Sources
Class 2B/3
Local Freight
1.5
11,477
VIUS498
Regional Freight
1.4
20,253
Commercial Pickups
3.8
12,781
Specialized Vehicles
1.1
12,787
Class 4-6
Local Freight
0.7
9,256
Regional Freight
0.9
24,947
Specialized Vehicles
0.7
12,880
Class 7/8
Local Freight
0.8
12,023
Regional Freight
1.3
37,097
Long-Haul Freight
1.1
85,401
Specialized Vehicles
0.8
15,092
Transit Bus
0.1
42,940
Stock: 2022 National
Transit Database (MID),499
including the following
vehicle types: articulated
bus, bus, cutaway, double-
decker bus, trolleybus, and
over-the-road bus; VMT:
Alternative Fuels Data
Center (AFDC)500
School Bus
0.5
14,084
Stock: School Bus Fleet
Fact Book501; VMT: AFDC502
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Intercity Bus
0.03
44,519
American Bus
Association503
Activity, Energy Consumption, and GHG Emissions
MHDV activity, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are aligned with the 2024
Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (the GHGl).504 The GHGI provides aggregated energy
consumption data by fuel type for MHDVs and buses. VMT data by fuel type are also provided based on
data from the Federal Highway Administration. Activity, energy consumption, and GHG emissions were
disaggregated by MHDV market segment using VIUS for non-bus commercial MHDVs and a range of
sources for buses. Bus sources are listed below:
1. For transit and school buses, activity and fuel economy data from the AFDC were used to estimate
energy consumption shares.505 506 Fuel type shares were based on data from the World Resources
Institute (WRl) for school buses507 508 and the NTD for transit buses.509
2. For intercity buses, activity and fuel economy data from the American Bus Association were used to
estimate energy consumption.510'5,1
Table D2 shows the resulting estimates of 2022 VMT, energy consumption, and GHG emissions by market
segment.
Table D2. Estimated VMT, Energy Consumption, and GHG Emissions by MHDV Market Segment
Vehicle Class
Market Segment
2022 VMT
(Billion
Miles)
2022 Energy
Consumption (Trillion
British Thermal Units)
2022 GHG
Emissions
(MMT C02e)
Class 2B/3
Local and Regional Freight
26.9
240.9
17.9
Commercial Pickup
38.1
330.8
24.5
Class 4-6
Local and Regional Freight
29.8
379.0
28.3
Class 7/8
Local and Regional Freight
75.5
1527.0
116.3
Long-Haul Freight
107.9
2,055.7
156.6
Class 2B-8
Specialized Vehicles
34.6
527.7
39.4
Transit Buses
6.2
193.6
14.3
School Buses
6.9
119.1
9.0
Intercity Buses
2.2
38.4
2.9
Zero-Emission Vehicle Deployment Estimates
Zero-emission vehicle deployments and current model availability were taken from several sources.
These are listed in Table D3 below.
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Table D3. Zero-Emission Vehicle Deployment Estimates by Market Segment
Vehicle Class
Market Segment
Technology
2023
Vehicle
Sales
Cumulative
(2022-2023)
Vehicle
Deployments
Sources
Class 2B/3
Local and Regional Freight
Battery-
electric
vehicle (BEV)
16,828
25,931
CALSTART512 *
Class 4-6
Local and Regional Freight
BEV
455
1,604
Class 7/8
Local and Regional Freight
BEV
218
1,118
Fuel cell
electric
vehicle
(fcev)
30
44
Class 2B-8
Specialized Vehicles
BEV
20
67
Class 7/8
School Buses
BEV
1,266
3,792
WRI513*
Class 7/8
Transit Buses
BEV
53
2,031
NTD5'4**
FCEV
0
89
* Data current as of December 2023
** Data current as of 2022
Table D4. Model Availability and Vehicle Characteristics of Existing ZEVs
Vehicle Class/Body Type
Available Models
Median Range (Miles)
Class 2B/3 Van
23 BEV
170
Class 4-6 Step Van and Truck
48 BEV; 5 FCEV
150 (Step Van BEV); 170 (Medium-
Duty BEV); 112 (Step Van FCEV); 217
(MD fcev)
Class 7/8 Truck
19 BEV; 6 FCEV
150 (BEV); 500 (FCEV)
School Bus
21 BEV; 3 FCEV
125 (BEV); 236 (FCEV)
Transit and Shuttle Bus
36 BEV; 2 FCEV
195 (Transit BEV); 150 (Shuttle Bus
BEV); 315 (Transit FCEV)
Commercial Pickup*
10 BEV (as of 2022)
300 (as of 2022)
Other Specialized Vehicles
4 BEV; 1 FCEV (l bucket BEV, 4 refuse)
125 (BEV); 125 (FCEV)
Intercity Bus
11 BEV; 1 FCEV
184 (BEV); 250 (FCEV)
~Commercial pickup models include some Class 2B vehicles that may be used primarily for personal use.
(Model availability data may exclude some announced vehicles, such as the Tesla Semi, which have been
deployed in demonstrations but are not yet available on the market. It may also exclude vehicle models
with exclusive contracts with fleets. Source: CALSTART515 and ICCT.516)
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
129
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Action Plan Leadership
The following individuals were responsible for the
overall leadership and vision behind the action
plan:
• DOE: Michael Berube, Morgan Ellis
• EPA: Alejandro Nunez, Karl Simon
• DOT: Ann Shikany
• HUD: Alexis Pelosi
Coordinators and Lead Authors
The following individuals led the development
and writing of this action plan and coordinated
the technical work including drafting, reviewing,
and editing processes:
• DOE: Gregory Kleen
• EPA: Aaron Hula
Supporting Authors
The following core team members were
responsible for key elements of the writing,
drafting and editing processes and addressing
comments made by peer reviewers:
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory:
Catherine Ledna, Matteo Muratori (current
affiliation: Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory)
• DOE: Kara Podkaminer, Noel Crisostomo,
Robert Natelson
• Joint Office of Energy and Transportation:
Kevin Miller
Supporting Contributors
The following contributors provided a range of
technical and analytic input in specific topic
areas of the action plan:
• DOE: Jesse Adams, John Cabaniss, Nichole
Fitzgerald, Ben Gould, Christopher Irwin,
Siddiq Khan, Avi Mersky, Joshua Messner,
Julie Peacock, Fernando Salcedo, Sunita
Satyapal, Ben Simon
DOT: Tina Hodges, Gary Jensen (Federal
Highway Administration)
EPA: Angela Cullen, Chad Bailey, Britney
McCoy, Jessica Daniels, Naima Swisz-Hall
HUD: Michael Freedberg, Madeleine Parker
White House Climate Policy Office: Alycia
Gilde
Argonne National Laboratory: Ram
Vijayagopal
National Renewable Energy Laboratory:
Abigail Wheelis, Alicia Birky, Andrew Kotz
Energetics: William Batten
• DOT: Liya Rechtman
• Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Vivek Sujan
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130
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89 EPA. 2024. Final Rule: Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards for Heavy-Duty Vehicles - Phase 3. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-HQ-QAR-2022-0985. www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2024-Q4-
22/pdf/2024-06809.pdf.
90 Hergart, C. and Gerty, M. 2023. "PACCAR Perspectives on H2-ICE," 28 November 2023.
ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/231128paccarpres.pdf.
91 Srna, A. 2023. "Overview of Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (H2ICE) Technologies." U.S. Department
of Energy, www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-07/h2iqhour-02222023-2.pdf.
92 Wang, M., et al. 2023. Summary of Expansions and Updates in R&D GREET® 2023. Argonne National
Laboratory. doi.org/l0.11578/GREET-Excel-2023/dc.20230907.1.
93 EPA. 2024. Final Rule: Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards for Heavy-Duty Vehicles - Phase 3. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-HQ-QAR-2022-0985. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-
2024-04-22/pdf/2024-06809.pdf
94 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks - Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIO-ZET-May-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
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AN ACTION PLAN FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE ENERGY AND EMISSIONS INNOVATION
136
95 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
Administration, www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/data-product/2022-annual-database-revenue-vehicle-
inventory.
96 Lazer, L., and Freehafer, L. 2024. Dataset of Electric School Bus Adoption in the United States. Washington,
D.C.: World Resources Institute, datasets.wri.org/dataset/electric school bus adoption.
97 DOE. 2023. "FOTW #1272, January 9, 2023: Electric Vehicle Battery Pack Costs in 2022 Are Nearly 90% Lower
than in 2008, according to DOE Estimates." U.S. Department of Energy, 9 January 2023.
www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1272-january-9-2023-electric-vehicle-battery-pack-costs-
2022-are-nearly.
98 BloombergNEF. 2023. "Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Prices Hit Record Low of $139/kWh." BloombergNEF, 26
November 2023. about.bnef.com/blog/lithium-ion-batterv-pack-prices-hit-record-low-of-139-kwh/.
99 DOE. 2022. "FOTW #1234, April 18, 2022: Volumetric Energy Density of Lithium-ion Batteries Increased by
More than Eight Times Between 2008 and 2020." U.S. Department of Energy, 18 April 2022.
www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1234-april-18-2022-volumetric-energy-density-lithium-ion-
batteries.
100 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Technologies Office, www.energv.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/hfto-mvpp-2024.pdf.
101 Huya-Kouadio, J., and James, B. D. 2023. Fuel Cell Cost and Performance Analysis. U.S. Department of
Energy, 2023 Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting.
102 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks - Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIO-ZET-May-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
103 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
Administration, www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/data-product/2022-annual-database-revenue-vehicle-
inventory.
104 Lazer, L., and Freehafer, L. 2024. Dataset of Electric School Bus Adoption in the United States. Washington,
D.C.: World Resources Institute, datasets.wri.org/dataset/electric school bus adoption.
105 EIA. 2023. Annual Energy Outlook, 2023. U.S. Energy Information Administration.
www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/.
106 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks - Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIO-ZET-May-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
107 Richard, J., Lund, J., and Al-Alawi, B. 2024. Zeroing in on Zero-Emission Trucks: The State of the U.S.
Market. January 2024. CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/0l/ZIQ-ZET-
2024 010924 Final.pdf.
108 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2027 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
Datasets: 2021 Public Use File (PUF). U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics;
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau; U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration; U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2024 January from
www.census.gov/data/datasets/202l/econ/vius/2021-vius-puf.html.
109 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
Administration, www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/data-product/2022-annual-database-revenue-vehicle-
inventory.
1,0 School Bus Fleet. 2023. "2023 Fact Book: Pupil Transportation by the Numbers." School Bus Fleet, Bobit.
schoolbusfleet.mydigitalpublication.com/publication/?m=65919&i=771183&p=l&ver=html5.
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1.1 American Bus Association. 2024. "Size of the Motorcoach Industry in the United States and Canada,
2022." American Bus Association, buses.org/wp-
content/uploads/2024/03/MotorcoachCensus2022 SizeOflndustry.pdf.
1.2 EIA. 2023. Annual Energy Outlook, 2023. U.S. Energy Information Administration.
www.eia.aov/outlooks/aeo/.
1.3 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
Administration, www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/data-product/2022-annual-database-revenue-vehicle-
inventory.
1.4 Lazer, L., and Freehafer, L. 2024. Dataset of Electric School Bus Adoption in the United States. Washington,
D.C.: World Resources Institute, datasets.wri.org/dataset/electric school bus adoption.
1.5 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIO-ZET-May-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
1.6 21st Century Truck Partnership. 2023. Electrification Technologies Sector Team Roadmap. 21st Century
Truck Partnership and U.S. Department of Energy. www.energv.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/21CTP-ETT-
Roadmap Final Sep2023 compliant corrected 08Dec23.pdf.
1.7 21st Century Truck Partnership. 2023. Electrification Technologies Sector Team Roadmap. 21st Century
Truck Partnership and U.S. Department of Energy. www.energv.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/21CTP-ETT-
Roadmap Final Sep2023 compliant corrected 08Dec23.pdf.
1.8 Hunter, C., et al. 2021. Spatial and Temporal Analysis of the Total Cost of Ownership for Class 8 Tractors
and Class 4 Parcel Delivery Trucks. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-71796.
www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/71796.pdf.
1.9 ANL. 2020. "Battery Second Life: Freguently Asked Questions." Argonne National Laboratory.
afdc.energv.gov/files/u/publication/batterv second life fag.pdf.
120 Smith, D., et al. 2020. Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Electrification: An Assessment of Technology
and Knowledge Gaps. Oak Ridge National Laboratory and National Renewable Energy Laboratory. DOI:
10.2172/1615213.
121 21st Century Truck Partnership. 2023. Electrification Technologies Sector Team Roadmap. 21st Century
Truck Partnership and U.S. Department of Energy. www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/21CTP-ETT-
Roadmap Final Sep2023 compliant corrected 08Dec23.pdf.
122 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for HD Regional Haul Tractors. North American
Council for Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/hd-regional-haul-
tractors I.
123 MHDVs are limited to a maximum GVWR of 80,000 pounds on federal interstates, with a maximum load
of 20,000 pounds on a single axle and 34,000 pounds on a tandem axle. Battery-electric and natural gas
vehicles may exceed the GVWR limit by 2,000 pounds. Legislation was introduced in 2023 to include FCEVs
in this exemption. Sources: (l) FHWA. 2019. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2019, Truck Size and
Weight Provisions. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/pol ping finance/policy/fastact/tswprovisions2019/index.htm: (2) U.S.
Congress. 2023. H.R. 3447,118th Congress, 1st Session, 2023. www.congress.gov/bill/ll8th-congress/house-
bill/3447.
124 Gohlke, D. 2021. Comprehensive Vehicle Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) Framework. U.S. Department of
Energy, 2021 Vehicle Technologies Office Annual Merit Review, www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-
07/van038 Gohlke 2021 o 5-27 455pm LR ML.pdf.
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138
125 Vijayagopal, R. 2024. Identifying Medium & Heavy Duty Applications for Fuel Cell Electric Trucks. U.S.
Department of Energy, 2021 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office Annual Merit Review.
126 Ibid.
127 EPA. 2016. National Port Strategy Assessment. Reducing Air Polution and Greenhouse Gases at U.S. Ports.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-420-R-16-011.
nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P100PGK9.pdf.
128 EPA. 2020. Environmental Justice Primer for Ports. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-420-B-20-
007. nepis.epa.aov/Exe/ZvPDF.cai?Dockev=P100YMNT.pdf.
129 Ramirez-Ibarra, M., and Saphores, J. 2023. "Health and Equity Impacts from Electrifying Drayage Trucks."
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 116:103616. doi.org/l0.1016/j.trd.2023.103616.
130 Lazer, L., and Freehafer, L. 2024. Dataset of Electric School Bus Adoption in the United States. Washington,
D.C.: World Resources Institute, datasets.wri.org/dataset/electric school bus adoption.
131 Li, C., et al. 2009. "School Bus Pollution and Changes in the Air Quality at Schools: A Case Study." Journal
of Environmental Monitoring 11 (5): 1037-1042. doi.ora/l0.1039/b819458k.
132 Weir, E. 2002. "Diesel Exhaust, School Buses and Children's Health." CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association
Journal 167 (5): 505. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC121970.
133 Lazer, L., et al. 2024. Electrifying US School Bus Fleets Equitably to Reduce Air Pollution Exposure in
Underserved Communities. World Resources Institute, doi.org/l0.46830/wrirpt.22.00124.
134 Pedde, M., Szpiro, A., Hirth, R., and Adar, S. D. 2023. "Randomized Design Evidence of the Attendance
Benefits of the EPA School Bus Rebate Program." Nature Sustainability 6: 838-844. doi.ora/l0.1038/s41893-
023-01088-7.
135 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2027 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
Datasets: 2021 Public Use File (PUF). U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics;
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau; U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration; U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2024 January from
www.census.gov/data/datasets/2021 /econ/vius/2021-vius-puf.html.
136 Lazer, L., and Freehafer, L. 2024. Dataset of Electric School Bus Adoption in the United States. Washington,
D.C.: World Resources Institute, datasets.wri.org/dataset/electric school bus adoption.
137 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for Vans and Step Vans. North American Council for
Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/vans-step-vans/.
138 NREL. "FleetREDI: Fleet Research, Energy Data, and Insights." 2024. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Accessed April 2024. fleetredi.nrel.aov/.
139 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for MD Box Trucks. North American Council for Freight
Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/md-box-trucks/.
140 Duran, A., and Walkowicz, K. 2013. "A Statistical Characterization of School Bus Drive Cycles Collected via
Onboard Logging Systems." SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles 6 (2):400-406.
dx.doi.ora/10.4271/2013-01-2400.
141 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for Vans and Step Vans. North American Council for
Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/vans-step-vans/.
142 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for MD Box Trucks. North American Council for Freight
Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/md-box-trucks/.
143 Arora, M., Welch, D., and Silver, F. 2021. Electric School Buses Market Study. A Synthesis of Current
Technologies, Costs, Demonstrations and Funding. CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-
content/uploads/202l/l2/Electric-School-Bus-Market-Report-2021.pdf.
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139
144 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for Vans and Step Vans. North American Council for
Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/vans-step-vans/.
145 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for MD Box Trucks. North American Council for Freight
Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/md-box-trucks/.
146 Arora, M., Welch, D., and Silver, F. 2021. Electric School Buses Market Study. A Synthesis of Current
Technologies, Costs, Demonstrations and Funding. CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-
content/uploads/202l/l2/Electric-School-Bus-Market-Report-2021.pdf.
147 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks." iScience
11 (4): 109385. doi.ora/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
148 Mulholland, E. 2022. Cost of Electric Commercial Vans and Pickup Trucks in the United States Through
2040. The International Council on Clean Transportation, theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/0l/cost-
ev-vans-pickups-us-2040-jan22.pdf.
149 Arora, M., Welch, D., and Silver, F. 2021. Electric School Buses Market Study. A Synthesis of Current
Technologies, Costs, Demonstrations and Funding. CALSTART. calstart.ora/wp-
content/uploads/202l/l2/Electric-School-Bus-Market-Report-2021.pdf.
150 Curran, A. 2023. "All About Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) for Electric School Buses." World Resources
Institute, electricschoolbusinitiative.ora/all-about-total-cost-ownership-tco-electric-school-buses.
151 Ibid.
152 Xie, Y., Basma, H., and Rodriguez, F. 2023. Purchase Costs of Zero-Emission Trucks in the United States to
Meet Future Phase 3 GHG Standards. The International Council on Clean Transportation, theicct.ora/wp-
content/uploads/2023/03/cost-zero-emission-trucks-us-phase-3-mar23.pdf.
153 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks - Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.ora/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIQ-ZET-Mav-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
154 Amazon. 2024. "Everything You Need to Know About Amazon's Electric Delivery Vans from Rivian," 202410
July, www.aboutamazon.com/news/transportation/everything-you-need-to-know-about-amazons-
electric-delivery-vans-from-rivian.
155 FedEx. 2021. "FedEx Commits to Carbon-Neutral Operations by 2040." FedEx Corp, 3 March 2021.
newsroom.fedex.com/newsroom/asia-english/sustainability2021.
156 DHL Group. 2021. "Accelerated Roadmap to Decarbonization: Deutsche Post DHL Group Decides on
Science Based Targets and Invests EUR 7 billion in Climate-Neutral Logistics Until 2030." DHL Group, 22
March 2021. group.dhl.com/en/media-relations/press-releases/202l/dpdhl-accelerated-roadmap-to-
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157 USPS. 2022. "USPS Intends to Deploy Over 66,000 Electric Vehicles by 2028, Making One of the Largest
Electric Vehicle Fleets in the Nation." United States Postal Service, 20 December 2022.
about.usps.eom/newsroom/national-releases/2022/l220-usps-intends-to-deploy-over-66000-electric-
vehicles-by-2028.htm.
158 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks - Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.ora/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIQ-ZET-Mav-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
159 Lazer, L., and Freehafer, L. 2024. Dataset of Electric School Bus Adoption in the United States. Washington,
D.C.: World Resources Institute, datasets.wri.org/dataset/electric school bus adoption.
160 Arora, M., Welch, D., and Silver, F. 2021. Electric School Buses Market Study. A Synthesis of Current
Technologies, Costs, Demonstrations and Funding. CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-
content/uploads/202l/l2/Electric-School-Bus-Market-Report-2021.pdf.
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140
161 Steimer, H. 2023. "The Electric School Bus Series: Powering the Grid with Cajon Valley Union School
District." World Resources Institute, 28 February 2023. electricschoolbusinitiative.org/electric-school-bus-
series-powering-grid-cajon-valley-union-school-district.
162 EPA. 2024. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2022. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-24-004. www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventorv-us-greenhouse-gas-
emissions-and-sinks-1990-2022.
163 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2027 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
Datasets: 2021 Public Use File (PUF). U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics;
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau; U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration; U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2024 January from
www.census.gov/data/datasets/2021 /econ/vius/2021-vius-puf.html.
164 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
Administration, www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/data-product/2022-annual-database-revenue-vehicle-
inventory.
165 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for MD Box Trucks. North American Council for Freight
Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/md-box-trucks/.
166 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for HD Regional Haul Tractors. North American
Council for Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/hd-regional-haul-
tractors I.
167 "FleetREDI: Fleet Research, Energy Data, and Insights." 2024. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Accessed April 2024. fleetredi.nrel.gov/.
168 Hunter, C., et al. 2021. Spatial and Temporal Analysis of the Total Cost of Ownership for Class 8 Tractors
and Class 4 Parcel Delivery Trucks. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-71796.
www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/71796.pdf.
169 Post, M. B., and Collins, E. 2023. Fuel Cell Bus Evaluations. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen Program
2023 Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting.
www.hydrogen.energy.gov/docs/hydrogenprogramlibraries/pdfs/review23/ta013 post 2023 p-pdf.pdf.
170 Nunno, R. 2018. "Fact Sheet: Battery Electric Buses: Benefits Outweigh Costs." Environmental and Energy
Study Institute, 26 October 2018. www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-electric-buses-benefits-
outweigh-costs.
171 Norris, J., Leong, K., and Tomic, J. 2024. Los Angeles Department of Transportation and BYD Electric Bus
Demonstration. CALSTART, Prepared for California Energy Commission. CEC-600-2024-013.
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172 Xie, Y., Basma, H., and Rodriguez, F. 2023. Purchase Costs of Zero-Emission Trucks in the United States to
Meet Future Phase 3 GHG Standards. The International Council on Clean Transportation, theicct.org/wp-
content/uploads/2023/03/cost-zero-emission-trucks-us-phase-3-mar23.pdf.
173 Spiller, B., Lohawala, N., and DeAngeli, E. 2023. Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Electrification:
Challenges, Policy Solutions, and Open Research Questions. Resources for the Future.
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174 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
Administration, www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/data-product/2022-annual-database-revenue-vehicle-
inventory.
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141
175 Arora, M., Welch, D., and Silver, F. 2021. Electric School Buses Market Study. A Synthesis of Current
Technologies, Costs, Demonstrations and Funding. CALSTART. calstart.ora/wp-
content/uploads/202l/l2/Electric-School-Bus-Market-Report-2021.pdf.
176 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks - Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.ora/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIQ-ZET-Mav-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
177 California HVIP. 2024. "Voucher Map and Data." California Hybrid and Zero-Emission Truck and Bus
Voucher Incentive Project, 30 June 2024. Accessed 10 August 2024. californiahvip.org/impact/#deployed-
vehicle-mapping-tool.
178 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2027 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
Datasets: 2021 Public Use File (PUF). U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics;
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau; U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration; U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2024 January from
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179 Ford Motor Company. 2023. "2023 Ford Super Duty Pickup." Ford Motor Company.
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180 Rivian. "How Does Towing Affect Range?" Accessed 10 August 2024. rivian.com/support/article/how-
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181 MotorTrend. 2022. "Etelligence Quotient: Driving the Future of Heavy-Duty Electric Pickup Trucks."
MotorTrend Group, 23 February 2022. www.motortrend.com/reviews/maana-electric-heaw-dutv-pickup-
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182 Ford Motor Company. 2024. "Ford Pro Demand Drives F-Series Super Duty Production Expansion to
Canada, with Future Multi-Energy Technology." Ford Motor Company, 18 July 2024.
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183 LaReau, J. L. 2022. "GM Moves Up Launch Date for All-Electric Heavy-Duty Pickups," Detroit Free Press, 7
January 2022. www.freep.com/story/money/cars/general-motors/2022/0l/07/gm-electric-heavy-duty-
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184 Ohnsman, A. 2024. "GM Readies Test Fleet of Heavy Pickups Powered by Green Hydrogen." Forbes, 5
March 2024. www.forbes.com/sites/alanohnsman/2024/03/05/gm-readies-test-fleet-of-heavy-pickups-
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185 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2027 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
Datasets: 2021 Public Use File (PUF). U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics;
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186 Miyasato, M., and Kosowski, M. 2015. Plug-In Hybrid Medium-Duty Truck Demonstration and Evaluation.
Electric Power Research Institute, doi.ora/10.2172/1234437.
187 "FleetREDI: Fleet Research, Energy Data, and Insights." 2024. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Accessed April 2024. fleetredi.nrel.gov/.
188 Miyasato, M., and Kosowski, M. 2015. Plug-In Hybrid Medium-Duty Truck Demonstration and Evaluation.
Electric Power Research Institute, doi.org/10.2172/1234437.
189 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for MD Box Trucks. North American Council for Freight
Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/md-box-trucks/.
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190 Al-Alawi, B. M., and Richard, J. 2024. "Zeroing in On Zero-Emission Trucks - Market Update: May 2024."
CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ZIQ-ZET-Mav-2024-Market-Update Final.pdf.
191 California HVIP. 2024. "Voucher Map and Data." California Hybrid and Zero-Emission Truck and Bus
Voucher Incentive Project, 30 June 2024. Accessed 10 August 2024 from
californiahvip.org/impact/#deployed-vehicle-mapping-tool.
192 Volvo. 2023. "Volvo Trucks Delivers the First Heavy-Duty Electric Concrete Mixer Truck to CEMEX." Volvo, 10
February 2023. www.volvotrucks.com/en-en/news-stories/press-releases/2023/feb/volvo-delivers-the-
first-heavy-duty-electric-concrete-mixer-truck-to-cemex.html.
193 Hyzon Motors Inc. 2023. "Hyzon Motors Deploys First Hydrogen-Powered Waste Collection Truck in
Australian Commercial Trial With Remondis." PR Newswire, 23 October 2023. www.prnewswire.com/news-
releases/hyzon-motors-deploys-first-hydrogen-powered-waste-collection-truck-in-australian-
commercial-trial-with-remondis-301963998.html.
194 Cummins, Inc. 2020. "Cummins Delivers Fuel Cells for Refuse Trucks in Europe," Cummins, Inc, 24 June
2020. www.cummins.com/news/2020/O6/24/cummins-delivers-fuel-cells-refuse-trucks-europe.
195 New Way Trucks. 2024. "New Way and Hyzon Unveil North America's First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Refuse Truck
at Waste Expo," New Way Trucks, 7 May 2024. refusetrucks.scrantonmfg.com/news-resources/2024/new-
way-and-hyzon-unveil-north-americas-first-hydrogen-fuel-cell-refuse-truck-at-waste-expo.asp.
196 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for MD Box Trucks. North American Council for Freight
Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/md-box-trucks/.
197 Viatec, Inc. 2023. "ePTO: The New Generation of Power Take Off. The Big Difference." Viatec, Inc, 1 October
2023. www.viatec.us/blogs/the-new-generation-of-epto-the-big-difference/.
198 California HVIP. 2024. "Voucher Map and Data." California Hybrid and Zero-Emission Truck and Bus
Voucher Incentive Project, 30 June 2024. Accessed 10 August 2024 from
californiahvip.org/impact/#deployed-vehicle-mapping-tool.
199 Miyasato, M., and Kosowski, M. 2015. Plug-In Hybrid Medium-Duty Truck Demonstration and Evaluation.
Electric Power Research Institute, doi.org/10.2172/1234437.
200 California HVIP. 2020. "Electric Power Takeoff (ePTO) Guidance." California Hybrid and Zero-Emission
Truck and Bus Voucher Incentive Project, October 2020. californiahvip.org/wp-
content/uploads/2020/l2/HVIP-ePTO-Qverview-101620.pdf.
201 EPA. 2024. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2022. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-24-004. www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-
emissions-and-sinks-1990-2022.
202 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2021 Vehicle Inventory and Use
Survey Datasets: 2021 Public Use File (PUF). U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation
Statistics; U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau; U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration; U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2024 January from
www.census.gov/data/datasets/2Q21 /econ/vius/2021-vius-puf.html.
203 Ibid.
204 Smith, D., et al. 2020. Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Electrification: An Assessment of Technology
and Knowledge Gaps. Oak Ridge National Laboratory and National Renewable Energy Laboratory. DOI:
10.2172/1615213.
205 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for HD Regional Haul Tractors. North American
Council for Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/hd-regional-haul-
tractors I.
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206 Kopasz, J., and Krause, T. 2019. "H2@Ports Workshop Summary Report." Argonne National Laboratory.
ANL-20/12. publications.anl.aov/anlpubs/2020/03/l58750.pdf.
207 CALSTART. 2024. Drive to Zero's Zero-Emission Technology Inventory Data Explorer. Version 1.5. CALSTART.
globaldrivetozero.org/tools/zeti-data-explorer/.
208 Tesla. 2024. "Semi: The Future of Trucking is Electric." www.tesla.com/semi.
209 Bond, E. 2023. "Volvo SuperTruck 3: A Zero Emission Freight Future." U.S. Department of Energy and Volvo
Group North America, 2023 Vehicle Technologies Office Annual Merit Review.
wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/downloads/2023 AMR/ELT286 Bond 2023 o%20-
%20Eric%20Bond.pdf.
2.0 Meijer, M. 2023. Development and Demonstration of Zero-Emission Technologies for Commercial Fleets
(SuperTruck 3). U.S. Department of Energy and PACCAR, Inc. 2023 Vehicle Technologies Office Annual Merit
Review.
wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/downloads/2023 AMR/ELT285 Meijer 2023 o%20v3%20-
%20Rvan%20Monahan.pdf.
2.1 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for HD Regional Haul Tractors. North American
Council for Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/hd-regional-haul-
tractors I.
2.2 Borlaug, B., et al. 2022. "Charging Needs for Electric Semi-Trailer Trucks." Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Transition 2:100038. doi.org/l0.1016/j.rset.2022.100038.
2.3 21st Century Truck Partnership. 2023. Electrification Technologies Sector Team Roadmap. 21st Century
Truck Partnership and U.S. Department of Energy. www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/21CTP-ETT-
Roadmap Final Sep2023 compliant corrected 08Dec23.pdf.
2.4 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Technologies Office, www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/hfto-mypp-2024.pdf.
2.5 "FleetREDI: Fleet Research, Energy Data, and Insights." 2024. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Accessed April 2024. fleetredi.nrel.aov/.
2.6 Zhang, C., et al. 2022. Heavy-Duty Vehicle Activity Updates for MOVES Using NREL Fleet DNA and CE-CERT
Data. National Renewable Energy Laboratory and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. NREL-TP-5400-
79509. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/79509.pdf.
2.7 FMCSA. 2022. Summary of Hours of Service Regulations. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, U.S.
Department of Transportation, www.fmcsa.dot.gov/regulations/hours-service/summary-hours-service-
regulations.
2.8 Agrawal, S. 2023. "Fact Sheet I The Future of the Trucking Industry: Electric Semi-Trucks (2023)."
Environmental and Energy Study Institute, www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-the-future-of-the-
trucking-industry-electric-semi-trucks-2023.
2.9 Schoettle, B., Sivak, M., and Tunnell, M. 2016. A Survey of Fuel Economy and Fuel Usage by Heavy-Duty
Truck Fleets. University of Michigan. SWT-2016-12. public.websites.umich.edu/~umtriswt/PDF/SWT-2016-
12.pdf.
220 Ibid.
221 Davis, S. C., and Boundy, R. G. 2022. "Transportation Energy Data Book, Edition 40." Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.
222 Fenwick, S. 2024. "Inspired Action: PepsiCo's Efforts to Decarbonize North America's Largest Private Fleet."
Clean Fuels Alliance America, 25 March 2024. cleanfuels.org/pepsicos-efforts-to-decarbonize-north-
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223 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks."
iScience T1 (4): 109385. doi.ora/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
224 Ibid.
225 Hunter, C., et al. 2021. Spatial and Temporal Analysis of the Total Cost of Ownership for Class 8 Tractors
and Class 4 Parcel Delivery Trucks. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-71796.
www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/71796.pdf.
226 Ibid.
227 21st Century Truck Partnership. 2023. Electrification Technologies Sector Team Roadmap. 21st Century
Truck Partnership and U.S. Department of Energy. www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/21CTP-ETT-
Roadmap Final Sep2023 compliant corrected 08Dec23.pdf.
228 Ibid.
229 Henning, M., Thomas, A., and Smyth, A. 2019. "An Analysis of the Association between Changes in
Ambient Temperature, Fuel Economy, and Vehicle Range for Battery Electric and Fuel Cell Electric Buses."
All Maxine Goodman Levin School of Urban Affairs Publications. 0 12 3 1630.
engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/urban facpub/1630/.
230 AFDC. "Renewable Diesel." Alternative Fuels Data Center, afdc.energy.gov/fuels/renewable-diesel.
231 AFDC. "Biodiesel Blends." Alternative Fuels Data Center, afdc.enerav.aov/fuels/biodiesel-blends.
232 Smith, D., et al. 2020. Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Electrification: An Assessment of Technology
and Knowledge Gaps. Oak Ridge National Laboratory and National Renewable Energy Laboratory. DOI:
10.2172/1615213.
233 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Technologies Office, www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/hfto-mypp-2024.pdf.
234 21st Century Truck Partnership. 2023. Electrification Technologies Sector Team Roadmap. 21st Century
Truck Partnership and U.S. Department of Energy. www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/21CTP-ETT-
Roadmap Final Sep2023 compliant corrected 08Dec23.pdf.
235 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks."
iScience T1 (4): 109385. doi.org/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
236 Basma, H., Buysse, C., Zhou Y., and Rodriguez, F. 2023. Total Cost of Ownership of Alternative Powertrain
Technologies for Class 8 Long-Haul Trucks in the United States. The International Council on Clean
Transportation, theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/tco-alt-powertrain-long-haul-trucks-us-
apr23.pdf.
237 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks."
iScience T1 (4): 109385. doi.org/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
238 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Technologies Office, www.enerav.aov/sites/default/files/2024-05/hfto-mvpp-2024.pdf.
239 EPA. 2024. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2022. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-24-004. www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-
emissions-and-sinks-1990-2022.
240 American Bus Association. 2024. "Size of the Motorcoach Industry in the United States and Canada,
2022." American Bus Association, buses.org/wp-
content/uploads/2024/03/MotorcoachCensus2022 SizeOflndustry.pdf.
241 John Dunham & Associates, Prepared for the American Bus Association Foundation. 2019. Motorcoach
Census: A Summary of the Size and Activity of the Motorcoach Industry in the United States and Canada
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in 2017. American Bus Association Foundation, buses.org/wp-
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242 American Bus Association. 2024. "Size of the Motorcoach Industry in the United States and Canada,
2022." American Bus Association, buses.org/wp-
content/uploads/2024/03/MotorcoachCensus2022 SizeOflndustry.pdf.
243 John Dunham & Associates, Prepared for the American Bus Association Foundation. 2019. Motorcoach
Census: A Summary of the Size and Activity of the Motorcoach Industry in the United States and Canada
in 2017. American Bus Association Foundation, buses.org/wp-
content/uploads/2024/02/FINAL 2017 Census l.pdf.
244 Bus & Motorcoach News. 2022. "FlixBus Partners With MCI to Run Electric Bus Pilot Route." MCI, Bus &
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245 Sustainable Bus. 2021. "Flixbus Announces: Hydrogen Long-Distance Buses on the European Network by
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246 Sustainable Bus. 2023. "Flixbus and Scania Enter Biogas-Partnership: 50 LNG-Powered Irizar i6s Efficient
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247 Tankou, A., Hall, D., and Slowik, P. 2024. Adapting Zero-Emission Vehicle Incentives for a Mainstream
Market. The International Council on Clean Transportation for the International Zero-Emission Vehicle
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248 Nadkarni, K. 2024. "Financing Fleet Electrification: Government-Backed Loan Guarantees Can Unlock
Bank Financing by Mitigating Risk." CALSTART. calstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/CALSTART-
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249 FTA. 2024. "Low or No Emission and Grants for Buses and Bus Facilities Competitive Programs FY2024
Notice of Funding Opportunity." U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration.
www.transit.dot.gov/notices-funding/low-or-no-emission-and-grants-buses-and-bus-facilities-
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250 Bond, E. 2023. "Volvo SuperTruck 3: A Zero Emission Freight Future," U.S. Department of Energy and Volvo
Group North America, 2023 Vehicle Technologies Office Annual Merit Review.
wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/downloads/2023 AMR/ELT286 Bond 2023 o%20-
%20Eric%20Bond.pdf.
251 Meijer, M. 2023. Development and Demonstration of Zero-Emission Technologies for Commercial Fleets
(SuperTruck 3). U.S. Department of Energy and PACCAR, Inc. 2023 Vehicle Technologies Office Annual Merit
Review.
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252 EPA. 2024. Multi-Pollutant Emissions Standards for Model Years 2027 and Later Light-Duty and Medium-
Duty Vehicles. 89 Fed. Reg. No. 76, 27,842 (April 18, 2024). www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2024-Q4-
18/pdf/2024-06214.pdf.
253 EPA. 2024. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards for Heavy-Duty Vehicles. 89 Fed. Reg. No. 78, 29,440
(April 22, 2024). www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2024-04-22/pdf/2024-Q6809.pdf.
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254 DOT. Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks for Model Years
2027 and Beyond and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Heavy-Duty Pickup Trucks and Vans for Model Years
2030 and Beyond. 89 Fed. Reg. No. 121, 52,540 (June 24, 2024). www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2024-Q6-
24/pdf12024-12864.pdf.
255 NACFE. 2022. Electric Trucks Have Arrived: The Case for MD Box Trucks. North American Council for
Freight Efficiency, nacfe.org/research/run-on-less/run-on-less-electric/md-box-trucks/.
256 USCAR. 2023. "Whitepaper - Necessity for H2 Refueling Staions for Medium-Duty Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicles in the U.S." United States Council for Automotive Research, 23 August 2023.
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257 EIA. 2024. "What Is U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source?" U.S. Energy Information Administration,
29 February 2024. www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3.
258 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks."
iScience T1 (4): 109385. doi.ora/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
259 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
theicct.org/publication/infrastructure-deployment-mhdv-may23/.
260 Zhou, E., and Mai, T. 2021. Electrification Futures Study. Operational Analysis of U.S. Power Systems with
Increased Electrification and Demand-Side Flexibility. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-
6A20-79094. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/79094.pdf.
261 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
theicct.org/publication/infrastructure-deployment-mhdv-may23/.
262 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks."
iScience T1 (4): 109385. doi.org/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
263 Zhou, E., and Mai, T. 2021. Electrification Futures Study. Operational Analysis of U.S. Power Systems With
Increased Electrification and Demand-Side Flexibility. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-
6A20-79094. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/79094.pdf.
264 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks. iScience
11 (4): 109385. doi.ora/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
265 HFTO. "Technical Targets for Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis." U.S. Department of Energy,
Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, www.enerav.aov/eere/fuelcells/technical-taraets-proton-
exchange-membrane-electrolysis.
266 AFDC. 2024. "Alternative Fueling Station Locator." Alternative Fuels Data Center. Accessed 21 June 2024
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267 California Energy Commission. 2024. "CEC Funded School Bus Chargers." California Energy Commission,
30 June 2024. Accessed August 10, 2024 from www.energy.ca.gov/data-reports/energy-almanac/zero-
emission-vehicle-and-infrastructure-statistics-collection/cec-O.
268 AFDC. 2024. "Alternative Fueling Station Locator," Alternative Fuels Data Center. Accessed 21 June 2024
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269 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2021 Vehicle Inventory and Use
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Highway Administration; U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2024 January from
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270 Borlaug, B., Salisbury, S., Gerdes, M., and Muratori, M. 2020. "Levelized Cost of Charging Electric Vehicles in
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271 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2021 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
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272 McKenzie, L., Di Filippo, J., Rosenberg, J., and Nigro, N. 2021. U.S. Vehicle Electrification Infrastructure
Assessment Medium and Heavy Duty Truck Charging. Atlas Public Policy, atlaspolicv.com/wp-
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273 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
theicct.org/publication/infrastructure-deployment-mhdv-may23/.
274 McKenzie, L., Di Filippo, J., Rosenberg, J., and Nigro, N. 2021. U.S. Vehicle Electrification Infrastructure
Assessment Medium and Heavy Duty Truck Charging. Atlas Public Policy, atlaspolicy.com/wp-
content/uploads/202l/ll/2021-ll-12 Atlas US Electrification Infrastructure Assessment MD-HD-
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275 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
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theicct.org/publication/infrastructure-deployment-mhdv-may23/.
276 Davis, A., et al. 2024. Assembly Bill 2127 Second Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Assessment.
California Energy Commission. CEC-600-2024-003. www.energy.ca.gov/publications/2024/assembly-bill-
2127-second-electric-vehicle-charging-infrastructure-assessment.
277 Wood, E., et al. Transportation Electrification Impact Study (TEIS). U.S. Department of Energy, 2024 Vehicle
Technologies Office Annual Merit Review. NREL/PR-5400-89539. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy24osti/89539.pdf.
278 Sujan, V., et al. Forthcoming. Vehicle-Grid Integration Blueprint for Heavy-Duty Drayage Applications.
Submitted to Applied Energy - Special Issue: Fostering Synergies between Transportation and Electricity
Networks for a Net-Zero Energy System. Submitted May 2024.
279 McKenzie, L., Di Filippo, J., Rosenberg, J., and Nigro, N. 2021. U.S. Vehicle Electrification Infrastructure
Assessment Medium and Heavy Duty Truck Charging. Atlas Public Policy, atlaspolicy.com/wp-
content/uploads/202l/ll/2021-ll-12 Atlas US Electrification Infrastructure Assessment MD-HD-
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280 Muratori, M., and Borlaug, B. 2021. Perspectives on Charging Medium- and Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles.
IEA Public Webinar on Public Charging Infrastructure Deployment Strategies and Business Models.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/81656.pdf.
281 National Research Council. 2015. Overcoming Barriers to Deployment of Plug-In Electric Vehicles.
National Academies Press, nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/21725/overcoming-barriers-to-
deployment-of-plug-in-electric-vehicles.
282 Haddock, J., et al. 2023. "Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer," Purdue University.
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283 DOE. Electric Vehicles at Scale Consortium: Advanced Charging and Grid Integration Technologies. U.S.
Department of Energy, www.energv.gov/eere/vehicles/electric-vehicles-scale-consortium-advanced-
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284INDOT. Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer. Indiana Department of Transportation.
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285 Bernard, M., Tankou, A., Cui, H., and Ragon, P. 2022. Charging Solutions for Battery-Electric Trucks. The
International Council on Clean Transportation, theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/l2/charging-
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286 Ibid.
287 Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation. 2023. "Mitsubishi Fuso and Ample to Partner on Battery-
Swapping Technology for Electric Trucks." Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation, 26 July 2023.
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288 Grzelewski, J. 2024. "Revoy Puts a Twist on Battery Swapping to Electrify Long-Haul Routes." Tech Brew, 5
April 2024. www.emergingtechbrew.com/stories/2024/04/05/revoy-battery-swapping-electric-vehicles-
semi-trucks.
289 Advent Technologies. 2023. "Advent Technologies Secures $2.2 Million Contract with the U.S. Department
of Defense, Paving the Way for Higher Production Volumes of Portable Fuel Cell Systems." Advent
Technologies, 7 September 2023. advent.energy/2023/09/07/advent-technologies-secures-2-2-million-
contract-with-the-u-s-department-of-defense-paving-the-wav-for-higher-production-volumes-of-
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290 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
theicct.org/publication/infrastructure-deployment-mhdv-may23/.
291 Borlaug, B., et al. 2021. "Heavy-Duty Truck Electrification and the Impacts of Depot Charging on Electricity
Distribution Systems." Nature Energy 6: 673-682. doi.org/l0.1038/s41560-021-00855-0.
292 Jermyn, C., et al. 2024. Building the Grid to Need. Environmental Defense Fund.
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293 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
theicct.org/publication/infrastructure-deployment-mhdv-may23/.
294 McKenna, K., Abraham, S., and Wang, W. 2024. "Major Drivers of Long-Term Distribution Transformer
Demand." National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-6A40-87653.
www.nrel.gov/docs/fy24osti/87653.pdf.
295 Borlaug, B., et al. 2021. "Heavy-Duty Truck Electrification and the Impacts of Depot Charging on Electricity
Distribution Systems." Nature Energy 6: 673-682. doi.org/l0.1038/s41560-021-00855-0.
296 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
theicct.org/publication/infrastructure-deployment-mhdv-may23/.
297 Jermyn, C., et al. 2024. Building the Grid to Need. Environmental Defense Fund.
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298 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
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299 Kontou, E., and Wood, E. 2020. Financial Feasibility of High-Power Fast Charging Stations: Case Study in
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302 Prologis. 2024. "North America's Largest Heavy-Duty EV Charging Hub Powered by Microgrid." Prologis.
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303 Office of Governor Gavin Newsom. 2024. "California Home to Two ZEV Firsts: Nation's First Solar-Powered
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304 Lee, B., Kushwah, A., and Jokinen, K. 2023. Microgrids: Best Practices for Zero-Emission Bus Resiliency.
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305 Spiller, B., Lohawala, N., and DeAngeli, E. 2023. Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Electrification:
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306 AFDC. 2024. "Alternative Fueling Station Locator." Alternative Fuels Data Center. Accessed 21 June 2024
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308 Motavali, J. 2024. "Oakland Hosts World's First Large-Scale Commercial Hydrogen Truck Stop." Autoweek,
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309 Villareal, K. 2024. Senate Bill 643: Clean Hydrogen Fuel Production and Refueling Infrastructure to
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3.4 DOE. "Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming." U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
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3.9 HFTO. "Gaseous Hydrogen Compression." U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
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320 Sdanghi, G., Maranzana, G., Celzard, A. and Fierro, V. 2019. "Review of the Current Technologies and
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321 Sadiq, M., et al. 2023. "Pre-Cooling Systems for Hydrogen Fueling Stations: Techno-economic Analysis for
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322 Schneider, J., Dang-Nhu, G., Hart, N., and Groth, K. 2019. ISO 19880-1, Hydrogen Fueling Station and
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323 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
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324 Hydrogen Safety Panel. 2017. Safety Planning for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Projects. Pacific Northwest
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325 Buttner, W., et al. 2017. Hydrogen Safety Sensor Performance and Use Gap Analysis. 7th International
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326 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
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327 Nyangon, J., and Darekar, A. 2024. "Advancements in Hydrogen Energy Systems: A Review of Levelized
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328 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks."
iScience T1 (4): 109385. doi.org/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
329 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
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330 USCAR. 2023. "Whitepaper - Necessity for H2 Refueling Staions for Medium-Duty Fuel Cell Electric
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uscar.org/download/53/hydrogen-fuel-cell/l3748/2023-uscar-medium-duty-h2-infrastructure-white-
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331 Bracci, J., Koleva, M., and Chung, M. 2024. Levelized Cost of Dispensed Hydrogen for Heavy-Duty
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332 OCED. 2024. Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs Selections for Award Negotiations. U.S. Department of
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333 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Vehicles in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation.
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334 Joseph, M., Van Amburg, B., Hill, M., and Sathiamoorthy, B. 2023. Phasing in U.S. Charging Infrastructure:
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335 Chu, K., et al. 2024. National Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy. Joint Office of Energy and
Transportation and U.S. Department of Energy. DOE/EE-2816 2024. driveelectric.aov/files/zef-corridor-
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336 Ragon, P., et al. 2023. Near-Term Infrastructure Deployment to Support Zero-Emission Medium- and
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337 McKenzie, L., Di Filippo, J., Rosenberg, J. and Nigro, N. 2021. U.S. Vehicle Electrification Infrastructure
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338 Chu, K., et al. 2024. National Zero-Emission Freight Corridor Strategy. Joint Office of Energy and
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339 Borlaug, B., et al. 2022. "Charging Needs for Electric Semi-trailer Trucks." Renewable and Sustainable
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340 CharlN. 2022. CharIN Whitepaper. Megawatt Charging System. CharlN.
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341 CharlN. 2020. "The CharlN Path to Megawatt Charging (MCS): Successful Connector Test Event at NREL."
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342 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Technologies Office, www.enerav.aov/sites/default/files/2024-05/hfto-mvpp-2024.pdf.
343 Martineau, R. 2022. "Fast Flow Future for Heavy-Duty Hydrogen Trucks." National Renewable Energy
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344 Daimler Truck. 2024. "Safe, Fast and Simple: Daimler Truck and Linde Set New Standard for Liquid
Hydrogen Refueling Technology," Daimler Truck, 2 July 2024.
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www.daimlertruck.com/en/newsroom/pressrelease/safe-fast-and-simple-daimler-truck-and-linde-set-
new-standard-for-liquid-hydrogen-refueling-technology-52581266.
345 Ibid.
346 CharlN. 2022. CharIN Whitepaper. Megawatt Charging System. CharlN.
www.charin.alobal/media/paaes/technoloav/knowledae-base/c708ba3361-
1670238823/whitepaper megawatt charging system l.O.pdf.
347 Steimer, H. 2023. "The Electric School Bus Series: Powering the Grid With Cajon Valley Union School
District." World Resources Institute, 28 February 2023. electricschoolbusinitiative.org/electric-school-bus-
series-powering-grid-cajon-valley-union-school-district.
348 IRS. 2023. "Section 45V Credit for Production of Clean Hydrogen; Section 48(a)(l5) Election to Treat
Clean Hydrogen Production Facilities as Energy Property." Internal Revenue Service, 26 December 2023.
www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/l2/26/2023-28359/section-45v-credit-for-production-of-
clean-hydrogen-section-48al5-election-to-treat-clean-hydrogen.
349 AFDC. "Permitting Processes for Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure." Alternative Fuels Data Center.
afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity-permitting-processes.
350 Brito, J. 2022. No Fleet Left Behind: Barriers and Opportunities for Small Fleet Zero-Emission Trucking. The
International Council on Clean Transportation, theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/l0/small-fleet-ze-
trucking-oct22.pdf.
351 Ledna, C., et al. 2024. "Assessing Total Cost of Driving Competitiveness of Zero-Emission Trucks." iScience
11 (4): 109385. doi.ora/l0.1016/j.isci.2024.109385.
352 Ly, S., and Werthmann, E. 2024. "8 Things to Know about Electric School Bus Repowers." World Resources
Institute, 28 May 2024. www.wri.org/insights/repowering-electric-school-buses.
353 Henning, M., Thomas, A., and Smyth, A. 2019. An Analysis of the Association Between Changes in
Ambient Temperature, Fuel Economy, and Vehicle Range for Battery Electric and Fuel Cell Electric Buses.
Cleveland State University and CTE. engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/urban facpub/1630/.
354 Durbin, T., et al. 2021. Low Emission Diesel (LED) Study. Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel Emissions in
Legacy and New Technology Diesel Engines. California Air Resources Board.
ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2021-ll/Low Emission Diesel Study Final Report.pdf.
355 Graboski, M., McCormick, R., Alleman, T., and Herring, A. 2003. The Effect of Biodiesel Composition on
Engine Emissions from a DDC Series 60 Diesel Engine. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/SR-
510-31461. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy03osti/31461.pdf.
356 Dalla Chiara, G., and Goodchild, A. 2020. "Do Commercial Vehicles Cruise for Parking? Empirical
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357 Zuniga, N., and Jeong, K. 2023. "SMART Webinar Series, Webinar #6: Freight." U.S. Department of Energy.
www.energv.gov/sites/default/files/2023-07/Smart Mobility Insights %236 - Freight - FINAL.pdf.
358 Sahin, O., and Stinson, M. 2022. "Off-Hours Delivery: Simulated Systemwide Results for the Chicago
Region." Argonne National Laboratory, presented at METRANS Interantional Urban Freight Conference, Long
Beach, CA. www.metrans.org/assets/upload/sahin stinson-0.pdf.
359 EPA. 2024. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2022. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-24-004. www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-
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360 CAPCOA. 2021. Handbook for Analyzing Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions, Assessing Climate
Vulnerabilities, and Advancing Health and Equity. California Air Pollution Control Officers Association.
www.caleemod.com/handbook/index.html.
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361 Gately, C., and Reardon, T. 2021. The Impacts of Land Use and Pricing in Reducing Vehicle Miles Traveled
and Transport Emissions in Massachusetts. Metropolitan Area Planning Council, www.mapc.ora/resource-
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362 Hoehne, C., et al. 2024. "National Impacts of Community-Level Strategies to to Decarbonize and Improve
Convenience of Mobility." U.S. Department of Energy, in 2024 Vehicle Technologies Office Annual Merit
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363 Kaack, L., et al. 2018. Decarbonizing Intraregional Freight Systems With a Focus on Modal Shift.
Environmental Research Letters 13(8): 083001. DOI: 10.1088/l748-9326/aad56c.
364 Kruse, J., et al. 2022. A Modal Comparison of Domestic Freight Transportation Effects on the General
Public: 2001-2019. National Waterways Foundation.
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365 EPA. 2024. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2022. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-24-004. www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-
emissions-and-sinks-1990-2022.
366 BTS. 2024. U.S. Ton-Miles of Freight. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of
Transportation Statistics, www.bts.gov/content/us-ton-miles-freight.
367 Craig, A., Blanco, E., and Sheffi, Y. 2013. "Estimating the CO2 Intensity of Intermodal Freight
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doi.ora/l0.1016/j.trd.2013.02.016.
368 Torres de Miranda Pinto, J., Mistage, O., Bilotta, P., and Helmers, E. 2018. "Road-Rail Intermodal Freight
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doi.org/l0.1016/j.envdev.2017.07.005.
369 Heinold, A., and Meisel, F. 2018. "Emission Rates of Intermodal Rail/Road and Road-Only Transportation in
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370 Holguin-Veras, J., et al. 2021. "Freight Mode Choice: Results From a Nationwide Qualitative and
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doi.ora/l0.1016/j.tra.2020.11.016.
371 Zhou, Y., Vyas, A., and Guo, Z. 2017. An Evaluation of the Potential for Shifting of Freight From Truck to Rail
and Its Impacts on Energy Use and GHG Emissions. Argonne National Laboratory. ANL/ESD—17/12.
publications.anl.gov/anlpubs/2017/08/l37467.pdf.
372 Gorman, M. 2008. "Evaluating the Public Investment Mix in US Freight Transportation Infrastructure."
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373 Ercan, T., Onat, N., and Tatari, O. 2016. "Investigating Carbon Footprint Reduction Potential of Public
Transportation in United States: A System Dynamics Approach." Journal of Cleaner Production 133:1260-
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374 Davis, S., and Boundy, R. 2022. Transportation Energy Data Book, Edition 40. Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. tedb.ornl.aov/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/TEDB Ed 40.pdf.
375 U.S. GAO. 2011. "A Comparison of the Costs of Road, Rail, and Waterways Freight Shipments That Are Not
Passed on to Consumers." U.S. Government Accountability Office. GAO-11-134. www.gao.gov/assets/gao-
ll-134.pdf.
376 Flexport Editorial Team. "Why Don't We Move More Freight via Inland Waterways Like the Mississippi
River?" Flexport. www.flexport.com/blog/why-dont-we-move-more-freight-via-inland-waterways-like-
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377 EPA. 2019. "Idle Reduction: A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
nepis.epa.aov/Exe/ZvPDF.cai?Dockev=P100XM9V.pdf.
378 Kotz, A., and Kelly, K. 2019. MOVES Activity Updates Using Fleet DNA Data: Interim Report. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-70671. www.nrel.gov/docs/fyl9osti/70671.pdf.
379 DOE. 2021. "FOTW #1218, December 27, 2021: Study Shows Transit Buses Idle for an Average of 3.7 Hours
per Day." U.S. Department of Energy, 27 December 2021. www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1218-
december-27-2021-study-shows-transit-buses-idle-average-37-hours.
380ITF. 2022. "How Digitally-Driven Operational Improvements Can Reduce Global Freight Emissions."
International Transport Forum, www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/digital-operation-reduce-
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381 EPA. 2021. "Port Operational Strategies: Gate Management." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-
420-F-21-006. nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P10119Q6.pdf.
382 McKevitt, J. 2017. "Truck Appointments Help Port of NY-NJ Cut Turn Time." Supply Chain Dive, 18 April 2017.
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383 Campbell, C. 2023. "California Trucking Groups Ask Ports for Single Appointments System." Trucking Dive,
31 January 2023. www.truckingdive.com/news/california-harbor-trucking-association-port-of-long-
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384 Colorado DOT. 2016. "Colorado Truck Parking Information Management System: Fast Lane 2016,"
Colorado Department of Transportation, 15 April 2016. www.itskrs.its.dot.gov/2018-b01256.
385 Rahman, S., et al. 2013. "Impact of Idling on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions and Available Idle-
Reduction Technologies for Diesel Vehicles - A Review." Energy Conversion and Management 74:171-182.
doi.org/l0.1016/j.enconman.2013.05.019.
386 Leslie, A., and Murray, D. 2022. An Analysis of the Operational Costs of Trucking: 2022 Update. American
Transportation Research Institute, truckingresearch.org/2022/08/an-analysis-of-the-operational-costs-
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387 Ibid.
388 BTS. 2023. "Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and Travel." U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau
of Transportation Statistics, www.bts.gov/browse-statistical-products-and-data/freight-facts-and-
figures/combination-truck-fuel-consumption.
389 NACFE. 2022. 2022 Annual Fleet Fuel Study. North American Council for Freight Efficiency.
nacfe.org/research/affs/.
390 NACFE. 2024. SuperTruck 2: Empowering Future Trucks. North American Council for Freight Efficiency.
nacfe.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/SuperTruck2-NACFE-Report-2024.pdf.
391 NACFE. 2022. 2022 Annual Fleet Fuel Study. North American Council for Freight Efficiency.
nacfe.org/research/affs/.
392 FHWA. 2021. "Truck Platooning." U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
highways.dot.gov/research/laboratories/saxton-transportation-operations-laboratory/Truck-Platooning.
393 Park, H. 2020. "Truck Platooning Early Deployment Assessment." U.S. Department of Transportation,
Federal Highway Administration.
www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/freight planning/talking freight/january 2021 /talkingfreightl 13 21hp.pdf?
al=l*loahzhi* aa*MTk2NzQzNTE3QS4xNjazNTa2Mjkx* aa VWlSFWJKBB*MTcxMDa3NTk3MC42LjAuMTcxMDa
3NTk3NC4wLjAuMA.
394 FMCSA. 2024. "Registration Statistics - Motor Carrier Management Information Systems (MCMIS)."
Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration. ai.fmcsa.dot.aov/reaistrationstatistics/CustomReports.
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395 BTS. 2022. Freight Facts and Figures: Moving Goods in the United States. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. data.bts.aov/stories/s/Movina-Goods-
in-the-United-States/bcyt-rqmu.
396 APTA. 2024. "2023 Public Transportation Fact Book." American Public Transportation Association.
www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2023-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf.
397 BLS. 2024. Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2023: 53-3032 Heavy and Tractor-Trailer Truck
Drivers. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes533032.htm.
398 BLS. 2024. Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2023: 53-3033 Light Truck Drivers. U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes533033.htm.
399 BLS. 2024. Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2023: 53-3052 Bus Drivers, Transit and Intercity.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, www.bls.aov/oes/current/oes533052.htm.
400 BLS. 2024. Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2023: 53-3051 Bus Drivers, School. U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes533051.htm.
401 BLS. 2024. Automotive Industry: Employment, Earnings, and Hours. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iagauto.htm.
402 Coffee, D., et al. 2022. Workforce Impacts of Achieving Carbon-Neutral Transportation in California.
University of California, Los Angeles, Luskin Center for Innovation, innovation.luskin.ucla.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2022/09/Workforce-lmpacts-of-Achieving-Carbon-Neutral-Transportation-in-
California.pdf.
403 Ibid.
404 Marjolin, A. 2023. "Lithium-ion battery capacity to grow steadily to 2030." S&P Global, July 27, 2023.
www.spglobal.com/market-intelligence/en/news-insights/research/lithium-ion-battery-capacity-to-
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405 Gohlke, D., et al. 2024. Quantification of Commercially Planned Battery Component Supply in North
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406 DOE. Building America's Clean Energy Future. U.S. Department of Energy, www.energy.gov/invest.
407 PACCAR. 2024. "Accelera by Cummins, Daimler Truck and PACCAR Select Mississippi for Battery Cell
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408 DOE. 2021. National Blueprint for Lithium Batteries: 2021-2030. Executive Summary. U.S. Department of
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409 DOE. The Pathway to Clean Hydrogen Commercial Liftoff, liftoff.energy.gov/clean-hydrogen/.
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420 EPA. 2024. "Learn About Impacts of Diesel Exhaust and the Diesel Emissions Reduction Act (DERA)." U.S.
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421 EPA. 2002. Health Assessment Document for Diesel Engine Exhaust (Final 2002). U.S. Environmental
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422IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. 2014. Diesel and Gasoline
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423 EPA. 2022. "Estimation of Population Size and Demographic Characteristics Among People Living Near
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424 EPA. 2024. Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards:
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425 EPA. 2022. "Estimation of Population Size and Demographic Characteristics Among People Living Near
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426 EPA. 2020. Environmental Justice Primer for Ports. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-420-B-20-
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427 OMH. "Asthma and African Americans," U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority
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428 Archer, D. 2020. '"White Men's Roads Through Black Men's Homes': Advancing Racial Equity Through
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429 Rothstein, R. 2017. The Color of Law. A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America.
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430 Ware, L. 2021. "Plessy's Legacy: The Government's Role in the Development and Perpetuation of
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431 Sugrue, T. 1996. The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ:
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432 EPA. 2024. Control of Air Pollution From New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards:
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433 Pedde, M., Szpiro, A., Hirth, R., and Adar, S. D. 2023. "Randomized Design Evidence of the Attendance
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434 Code of Federal Reulations 49 21.5b(7). 2003. www.ecfr.aov/current/title-49/subtitle-A/part-2l/section-
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435 Mandel, B., Van Amburg, B., and Welch, D. 2023. Voucher Incentive Programs: A Tool for Zer-Emission
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436 EPA. 2024. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards for Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Phase 3: Regulatory Impact
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437 EPA. 2024. Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards:
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438 EPA. 2024. Multi-Pollutant Emission Standards for Model Years 2027 and Later Light-Duty and Medium-
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439 EPA. 2024. Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards:
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440 EPA. 2024. Multi-Pollutant Emission Standards for Model Years 2027 and Later Light-Duty and Medium-
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441 FHWA. 2023. "Memorandum: Information: National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Formula Program
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442 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
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443 Chen, M., et al. 2024. "Research Progress of Enhancing Battery Safety with Phase Change Materials."
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444 See Wang, K., et al. "Critical Review and Functional Safety of a Battery Management System for Large-
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445 Pender, J., et al. 2020. "Electrode Degradation in Lithium-Ion Batteries." /ACS Nano 14(2): 1243-1295.
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446 Alliance for Automotive Innovation. 2022. "Lithium-Ion EV Battery Recycling Policy Framework." Alliance
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447 Liu, W., Placke, T., and Chau, K. 2022. "Overview of Batteries and Battery Management for Electric
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448 Gabbar, H., Othman, A., and Abdussami, M. 2021. "Review of Battery Management Systems (BMS)
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449 CharlN. 2022. CharIN Whitepaper: Megawatt Charging System. CharlN.
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450 ANSI Electric Vehicles Standards Panel. 2023. Roadmap of Standards and Codes for Electric Vehicles at
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451 Ibid.
452 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. De partment of Energy, Hydrogen and
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453 Martineau, R. 2022. "Fast Flow Future for Heavy-Duty Hydrogen Trucks." National Renewable Energy
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454 Ahad, M., et al. 2023. "An Overview of Challenges for the Future of Hydrogen." Materials 16(20): 6680.
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455 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Technologies Office, www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/hfto-mypp-2024.pdf.
456 Ahad, M., et al. 2023. "An Overview of Challenges for the Future of Hydrogen." Materials 16(20): 6680.
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457 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
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458 Ahad, M., et al. 2023. "An Overview of Challenges for the Future of Hydrogen." Materials 16(20): 6680.
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459 Buttner, W., et al. 2017. Hydrogen Safety Sensor Performance and Use Gap Analysis. 7th International
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460 Wischmeyer, T., et al. 2021. "Characterization of a Selective, Zero Power Sensor for Distributed Sensing of
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461 Shin, J., et al. 2022. "Crashworthiness Evaluation of a Hydrogen Bus Fuel System." International Journal of
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462 Chombo, P., Laoonual, Y., and Wongwises, S. 2021. "Lessons From the Electric Vehicle Crashworthiness
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463 Buttner, W., et al. 2017. Hydrogen Safety Sensor Performance and Use Gap Analysis. 7th International
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464 Wischmeyer, T., et al. 2021. "Characterization of a Selective, Zero Power Sensor for Distributed Sensing of
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465 Mei, W., et al. 2023. "Operando Monitoring of Thermal Runaway in Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells via
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466 NTSB. 2020. Safety Risks to Emergency Responders from Lithium-Ion Battery Fires in Electric Vehicles.
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467 Glover, A., Baird, A., and LaFleur, C. 2020. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles in Tunnels. Sandia National
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468 NHTSA. 2022. Cybersecurity Best Practices for the Safety of Modern Vehicles. U.S. Department of
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469 ANSI Electric Vehicles Standards Panel. 2023. Roadmap of Standards and Codes for Electric Vehicles at
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470 DOE. 2024. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Multi-Year Program Plan. U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen and
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472IAEI. Browse NEC Adoptions and Electrician Continuing Education Requirements by State. Independent
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473 Ehrhart, B., Hecht, E., and Schroeder, B. 2023. Update on Changes to the National Fire Protection
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474 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership. 2022. NFPA 2 and the California Fire Code. Hydrogen Fuel Cell
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475 BTS. 2023. "Modal Profiles: U.S. Freight Transportation with Canada, Mexico, and China." U.S. Department
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477 CalTrans, SANDAG, and ICTC. 2023. Zero-Emission Freight Transition at the California-Baja California
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478 United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement. Chapter 24: Environment.
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479 LPO. "Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program." U.S. Department of Energy Loan
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480 Mandel, B., Van Amburg, B., and Welch, D. 2023. Voucher Incentive Programs: A Tool for Zero-Emission
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481 Brito, J. 2022. No Fleet Left Behind Barriers and Opportunities for Small Fleet Zero-Emission Trucking. The
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482 FMCSA. 2024. "Registration Statistics - Motor Carrier Management Information Systems (MCMIS)."
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484 Argonne National Laboratory, Forthcoming.
485 U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2023. Use of Energy Explained, Energy Use for
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486 U.S. Department of Energy. 2024. 2023 Billion-Ton Report: Executive
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487 U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. 2021. United States 2021 Aviation Climate Action
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488 SAF Grand Challenge Roadmap. 2022. www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/beto-saf-gc-
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489 National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2024.2022 Bioenergy Industry Status Report. Golden,
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490 U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of the Chief Economist. 2024. USDA Agricultural Projections to 2033.
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491 U.S. Department of Energy. 2024. Chapter 5: Biomass From Agriculture. 2023 Billion-Ton
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492 U.S. Department of Energy. 2024. 2023 Billion-Ton Report, www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/2023billion-
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493 U.S. Department of Energy. 2024. 2023 Billion-Ton Report: Executive Summary. 2023 Billion-Ton
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495 Richard, J., Lund, J., and Al-Alawi, B. 2024. Zeroing in on Zero-Emission Trucks: The State of the U.S.
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496 BTS and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2023.2021 Vehicle Inventory and Use
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497 EIA. 2023. Annual Energy Outlook, 2023. U.S. Energy Information Administration.
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499 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
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500 AFDC. Average Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled by Major Vehicle Category. 2024. Alternative Fuels Data
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502 AFDC. 2024. Average Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled by Major Vehicle Category. Alternative Fuels Data
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503 American Bus Association. 2024. "Size of the Motorcoach Industry in the United States and Canada,
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504 EPA. 2024. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2022. U.S. Environmental
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505 AFDC. 2024. Average Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled by Major Vehicle Category. Alternative Fuels Data
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506 AFDC. 2024. Average Fuel Economy by Major Vehicle Category. Alternative Fuels Data Center, January
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507 Lazer, L., and Freehafer, L. 2024. Dataset of Electric School Bus Adoption in the United States. Washington,
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508 Huntington, A., Wang, J., Werthmann, E., and Jackson, E. 2023. Electric School Bus U.S. Market Study.
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509 FTA. 2024. National Transit Database, 2022 Annual Database Revenue Vehicle Inventory. Federal Transit
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